Bt 1 - Wood, Stone, Metal, Glass

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NEOLITHIC CONSTRUCTION

Back 1

BUILDING MATERIALS CONSISTED OF THICK TIMBER POSTS, REEDS, CLAY (HAYCLAY OR MUD - BRICKS ) AND STONE FOR THE FOUNDATIONS AND THE UPPER STRUCTURE (WALLS), WHILE FOR ROOFING, TREE TRUCKS, REEDS, CLAY AND HAY WERE USED.

Front 2

ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA

Back 2

THE MATERIALS USED TO BUILD A MESOPOTAMIAN HOUSE WERE SIMILAR BUT NOT EXACT AS THOSE USED TODAY : MUD BRICK, MUD PLASTER AND WOODEN DOORS. SUN - DRIED BRICKS, BURNT OR GLAZED BRICK, ENAMELLED BRICK FRIEZES, GLAZED TILES.

Front 3

ANCIENT EGYPT

Back 3

DUE TO THE SCARCITY OF WOOD, THE TWO PREDOMINANT BUILDING MATERIALS USED IN ANCIENT EGYPT WERE SUN - BAKED MUD BRICK AND STONE, MAINLY LIMESTONE, but also SANDSTONE AND GRANITE IN CONSIDERABLE QUANTITIES.

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ANCIENT GREECE

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THE PRINCIPAL MATERIALS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE WERE WOOD, USE FOR SUPPORTS AND ROOF BEAMS; UNBAKED BRICK, USED FOR WALLS, ESPECIALLY OF PRIVATE HOUSES; LIMESTONE AND MARBLE, USED FOR COLUMNS, WALLS, AND UPPER PORTIONS OF TEMPLES AND OTHER PUBLIC BUILDINGS ; TERRACOTTA (BAKED CLAY), USED FOR ROOF TILES AND ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENTS ; AND METALS, ESPECIALLY BRONZE, USED FOR SOME DECORATIVE DETAILS.

Front 5

ROMAN EMPIRE

Back 5

ROMAN CONSTRUCTION IS FAMED FOR THE USE OF CONCRETE AND THE BUILDINGS AT PORTUS ARE NO EXCEPTION. ROMAN CONCRETE IS COMPOSED OF MORTAR AND AGGREGATE. THE MORTAR WAS A MIXTURE OF LIME AND A VOLCANIC SAND CALLED POZZOLANA.

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MIDDLE AGES

Back 6

ALTHOUGH MOST OF THE BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED DURING THE MIDDLE AGES WERE MADE OF MALLEABLE MATERIALS LIKE, STRAW, WATTLE AND DAUB, COB AND SOMETIMES WOOD, STONE BUILDINGS WERE THE ONLY BUILDINGS THAT COULD SURVIVE NOWADAYS.

Front 7

RENAISSANCE

Back 7

RENAISSANCE STYLE HOMES. EXTERIOR. STUCCO AND STONE ARE COMMON MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN ITALIAN RENAISSANCE HOME. INTERIOR, PLANKED OR PARQUET HARDWOOD, MARBLE AND TERRACOTTA TILES ARE FREQUENTLY USED IN ITALIAN RENAISSANCE FLOORS.

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THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

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THEY WERE MADE WITH A TIMBER FRAME FILLED IN WITH WATTLE AND DAUB (WICKERWORK AND PLASTER). IN THE LATE 16TH CENTURY SOME PEOPLE BUILT OR REBUILT THEIR HOUSES WITH A WOODEN FRAME FILLED IN WITH BRICKS. ROOFS WERE USUALLY THATCHED THROUGH SOME WELL OFF PEOPLE HAD TILES. GLASS.

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THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

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CAST IRON AND WROUGHT IRON

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THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ( INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION )

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F

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THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

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C

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WOOD

Back 12

the hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the trunk or branches of a tree or shrub, used for fuel or timber.

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LOG

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a part of the trunk or a large branch of a tree that has fallen or been cut off.

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TIMBER

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wood prepared for use in building and carpentry.

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LUMBER

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is wood material that has been rough sawn and cut to length

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COMMERCIAL CUT

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F

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TYPES OF WOOD

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HARDWOOD AND SOFT WOOD

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HARDWOOD

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is widely used for construction, joinery and quality furniture due to its strength and durability. The reason for oak's, and other hardwoods, impeccable strength is because they are from slow growing trees, which means the trees' cellular structure is more dense, compared to faster growing softwoods.

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SOFTWOOD

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It is commonly used in construction, in the roof and inner walls structures, as well as in other building components such as fixtures and fittings, doors, and so on.

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KAMAGONG

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HARDWOOD. The dark wood is suitable for carvings.

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DUNGON

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HARDWOOD. This wood is utilized for house posts, joists and rafters, agricultural implements, and tool handles.

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IPIL

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HARDWOOD. The tree's timber, called merbau or kwila, is a very durable and termite-resistant wood, making it a highly valued material for flooring and other uses.

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DAO

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HARDWOOD. is use in light construction like bancas, rafters, and furniture.

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TINDALO

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HARDWOOD. It is suitable material for veneer, plywood, desks, large tables, unique tool handles, and musical instruments.

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MOLAVE

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HARDWOOD. One of the hardest local woods, it has a fine texture that makes it smooth to the touch.Ideal for window frames, shipbuilding, structural posts, railroad tracks, and other outdoor applications.

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GUIJO

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HARDWOOD. is commonly used for frames of automobile bodies and other vehicles furniture, cabinets, frames of boats, building posts, and beams.

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NARRA

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HARDWOOD. This very popular tropical wood has tones that range from yellow to red. use in floorings, cabinetry, construction, furniture making, decorative carvings, and musical instruments. It is considered endangered.

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LANKA

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HARDWOOD. is widely used in the manufacture of furniture, doors and windows, in roof construction, and fish sauce barrels.

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SAPLUNGAN

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HARDWOOD. also known as “yakalsaplungan”, but is harder, denser and heavier than yakal. It was also once used for railroad ties and shipbuilding, and its attributes are akin to molave.

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YAKAL

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HARDWOOD. It is a hard and golden Mahogany type which is used for frequently used products and surfaces. It is commonly used for important frameworks of buildings other than posts. can tolerate harsh hot and cold weathers.

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TANGUILE

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HARDWOOD. A moderately hard reddish wood, tanguile is one of the seven local woods often referred to as Philippine Mahogany. its wood that is used for panelling, joinery, furniture, cabinet work, carpentry, flooring, stairs, boxes and crates, veneer, ship building, etc.

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MANGKONO

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HARDWOOD. PHILIPPINE IRON WOOD TREE. resist rot makes it an ideal choice in ship building. It is also used in the handles of tools, poles, wharfs and bridges.

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ACACIA MANGIUM

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HARDWOOD. Since these trees crack easily and temperamental for use in furniture, this is mainly used for the paper pulp and biomass Fuel industries.

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FALCATA

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HARDWOOD. It is easy to grow given a good sunlit position and good drainage, and is used in revegetation. The bark is important in the tanning industry.

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GMELINA

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HARDWOOD. A fast-growing tree that is easily farmed. used for wood works such as boat decking, posts, furniture, and general carpentry.

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MERANTI

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HARDWOOD. Philippine mahogany. As veneer, much of it becomes plywood,plywood paneling, cabinets, and hollow-core doors.

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RUBBERWOOD

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HARDWOOD. is a light-colored medium-density tropical hardwood obtained from the Pará rubber tree, usually from trees grown in rubber plantations. Rubberwood is commonly advertised as an "environmentally friendly" wood, as it makes use of plantation trees that have already served a useful function.

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DOUGLAS FIR

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SOFTWOOD. it is used in the form of lumber, timbers, pilings and plywood.

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EASTERN WHITE PINE

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SOFTWOOD. Crates, boxes, interior millwork, construction lumber, carving, and boat building.

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EUROPEAN SPRUCE

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SOFTWOOD. used for decorative plywood, decorative veneer, domestic flooring, factory flooring, general carpentry, interior construction, joinery (external).

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LARCH

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SOFTWOOD. is valued for its tough, waterproof and durable qualities. for exterior cladding of buildings, and interior paneling.

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LODGEPOLE PINE

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SOFTWOOD. used to produce a wide variety of products including interior wall paneling, shelving, millwork, veneer, trusses, moulding, furniture, boxes, doors and trim and pulp.

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PARANA PINE

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SOFTWOOD. Easy to work with hand or machine tools. However, it has a tendency to warp and distort during drying, and compression woodmay be present in the wood

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SCOTS PINE

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SOFTWOOD. is one of the strongest softwoods available, and is widely used in the construction industry and in joinery.

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SITKA SPRUCE

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SOFTWOOD. is valued for its wood, which is light, soft, and relatively strong and flexible. It is used for general construction, ship building and plywood.

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PARTS OF A WOODY STEM

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.

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CLADDING

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is the application of one material over another to provide a skin or layer. In construction, cladding is used to provide a degree of thermal insulation and weather resistance, and to improve the appearance of buildings.

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MOULDING

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also known as coving, is a strip of material with various profiles used to cover transitions between surfaces or for decoration.

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FLOORBOARD

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a long plank making up part of a wooden floor in a building.

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FORMWORK

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is temporary or permanent molds into which concrete or similar materials are poured.

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STONE

Back 51

hard solid nonmetallic mineral matter of which rock is made, especially as a building material.

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TYPES OF STONES

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GEOLOGICAL, PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL.

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GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

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Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups (Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks).

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IGNEOUS

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is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. The magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust.

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SEDIMENTARY

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are types of rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of mineral or organic particles on the floor of oceans or other bodies of water at the Earth's surface.

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METAMORPHIC

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rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism, which means "change in form". The original rock is subjected to heat and pressure, causing profound physical or chemical change.

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PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION

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Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as: Stratified rocks and Unstratified rocks.

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STRATIFIED ROCKS

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These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of Stratification or cleavage. They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are the examples of this class of stones.

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UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS

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These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact grains. They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this type of rocks.

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FOLIATED ROCKS

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These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction only. The direction need not be parallel to each other as in case of stratified rocks. This type of structure is very common in case of metamorphic rocks.

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CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATIONS

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On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify rocks as: Silicious rocks, Argillaceous rocks and Calcareous rocks

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SILICIOUS ROCKS

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The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Examples of such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.

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AGRILLACEOUS ROCKS

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The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are hard and durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are examples of this type of rocks.

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CALCAREOUS ROCKS

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The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.

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GRANITE

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is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture.

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BASALT

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a dark, fine-grained volcanic rock that sometimes displays a columnar structure.

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LIMESTONE

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a hard sedimentary rock, composed mainly of calcium carbonate or dolomite, used as building material and in the making of cement

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SANDSTONE

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Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized mineral particles or rock fragments.

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GNEISS

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Gneiss is a common and widely distributed type of metamorphic rock. Gneiss is formed by high temperature and high-pressure metamorphic processes acting on formations composed of igneous or sedimentary rocks

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LATERITE

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a reddish clayey material, hard when dry, forming a topsoil in some tropical or subtropical regions and sometimes used for building.

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SLATE

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a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade regional metamorphism.

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STONE DRESSING

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is the working of quarried stone into the shape and size required for use. This can be necessary as stones obtained from quarrying generally do not have the exact required dimensions or finish.

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QUARRYING OF STONE

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A quarry is a type of open-pit mine in which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, gravel, or slate is excavated from the ground.

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SELECTION OF STONE FOR CONSTRUCTION

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Chemical composition of stone, Strength and hardness, Durability, Resistance to fire, Bio-Deterioration, Appearance, Susceptibility to being quarried in large sizes.

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SOME COMMON BUILDING STONE

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GRANITE, BASALT OR TRAP, SLATE, GNEISS, SANDSTONE, LIMESTONE, MARBLE, QUARTZITE, KANKAR, LATERITE, MOORUM, GRAVEL, CHALK, SHINGLES.

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PRESERVATION OF STONES

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LINSEED OIL, PARAFFIN, COAL TAR.

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LINSEED OIL

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also known as flaxseed oil or flax oil, is a colourless to yellowish oil. a preservative for wood, concrete, and an ingredient in paints, varnishes, and stains.

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PARAFFIN

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Paraffin wax is a soft colourless solid, derived from petroleum, coal or shale oil. Some building products, such as gypsum, use it to improve water resistance.

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COAL TAR

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a thick black liquid produced by the destructive distillation of bituminous coal. used in road constructionand maintenance processes.

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ARTIFICIAL STONES

Back 80

TERAZZO AND MOSIAC

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BUILDING STONES MAY BE

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CRUSHED ROCK ( OR AGGREGATE STONE ) AND DIMENSION ( OR ORNAMENTAL ) STONES

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CRUSHED ROCK ( OR AGGREGATE STONE )

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Natural aggregate (crushedstone, sand, and gravel) is the most commonly used building material,along with concrete which is derived from crushed limestone. Bricks are made from fine aggregate along with clay which acts as the binding material, and iron oxide minerals for colouration.

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DIMENSION ( OR ORNAMENTAL ) STONES

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stones are much higher-value building material and are used as decorative facings on buildings.Examples: Marble, Quartzite, Gneiss, Schist, Serpentinite, Slate, Migmatite. By far the most commonly used dimension stones are marbles.

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MARBLE SLAB

Back 84

thick, flat piece of a solid substance.

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GRANITOIDS ( GRANITE )

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is a variety of coarse grained plutonic rock similar to granite which mineralogically is composed predominantly of feldspar and quartz.

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APPLICATIONS AND USES OF NATURAL STONE

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PAVING, VENEER FOR CLADDING AND FACADES, MASONRY, SLATE ROOFS, MARBLE FLOORING AND RIP - RAP.

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PAVING

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to cover or lay (a road, walk, etc.) with concrete, stones, bricks, tiles, wood, or the like, so as to make a firm, level surface.

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VENEER FOR CLADDING AND FACADES

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is the 'outer skin of a building'. Is not only used to protect a building against environmental conditions, it also determines the appearance of a building.

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MASONRY

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stonework.

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SLATE ROOFS

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a fine-grained usually bluish gray rock that splits into thin layers or plates and is used mostly for roofing and blackboards.

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MARBLE FLOORING

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is one of the most luxurious and sophisticated floorings to install in a home and adds a whole new element of class.

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RIP - RAP

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loose stone used to form a foundation for a breakwater or other structure.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STONES AND ROCKS

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ROCK IS BIGGER THAN STONE. ROCK IS MADE OF STONE.

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TEST FOR STONES

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Hardness test, Crushing test, Transverse strength test, Impact test, Fire resistance test, Attrition test, Acid test, Porosity and water absorption test.

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METAL

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a solid material that is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with good electrical and thermal conductivity (e.g., iron, gold, silver, copper, and aluminum, and alloys such as brass and steel)

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CLASSIFICATION OF METALS

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FERROUS METALS AND NON - FERROUS METALS

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FERROUS METALS

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CAST IRON, WROUGHT IRON, STEEL, PIG IRON. Mostly contain iron, are magnetic and give little resistance to corrosion.

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NON - FERROUS METAL

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COPPER, ALUMINUM, TIN, LEAD, COBALT, NICKEL. are not magnetic and are usually more resistant to corrosion than ferrous metals.

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STAINLESS STEEL

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a form of steel containing chromium, resistant to tarnishing and rust.

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CAST STEEL

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is a specialized form of casting involving various types of steel. It is used when cast irons cannot deliver enough strength or shock resistance.

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HIGH - SPEED STEEL

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is a subset of tool steels, commonly used as cutting tool material. It is often used in power-saw blades and drill bits.

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SHAPING TECHNIQUES

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ROLLING, EXTRUSION, FORGING, PRESS FORGING, PUNCHING, BENDING, WIRE DRAWING

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ROLLING

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is a process where a metal sheet passes through a series of Roll stands.

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EXTRUSION

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metal from a work piece of a certain cross section is forced to flow through a die of smaller cross section, forming an extruded part.

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FORGING

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is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces.

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PRESS FORGING

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is a method of forging that involves the slow and continuous application of pressure on the workpiece.

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PUNCHING

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is a forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch, through the workpiece to create a hole via shearing.

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BENDING

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is a process by which metal can be deformed when applying force to the subject, which causes it to bend at an angle and form the anticipated shape, which often results in it being in a 'V' or a 'U' shape.

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WIRE DRAWING

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draw out (metal) into wire by passing it through a series of holes of diminishing diameter in a steel plate.

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PERMANENT JOINTS

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RIVET, PRESS FIT JOINT, ADHESIVE, WELDING AND SOLDERING. usually cannot be disassembled without destroying the parts or damaging their surfaces.

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RIVET

Back 111

A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener.

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PRESS FIT JOINT

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is a fastening between two parts which is achieved by friction after the parts are pushed together, rather than by any other means of fastening.

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ADHESIVE

Back 113

A joint made in plastic piping by the use of an adhesive substance which forms a bond between the mating surfaces without dissolving either one of them.

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WELDING

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Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by using high heat to melt the parts together and allowing them to cool causing fusion.

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SOLDERING

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is a process in which two or more items are joined together by melting and putting a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal. Unlike welding, it does not involve melting the work pieces.

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TEMPORARY JOINTS

Back 116

NUTS AND BOLTS, SCREWS, THREADED JOINTS. it is a type which can be modified according to the alteration required. The parts can be dismantled and assembled with ease there by making it easy to transport.

Front 117

NUTS AND BOLTS

Back 117

A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always used in conjunction with a mating bolt to fasten multiple parts together.

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SCREWS

Back 118

a short, slender, sharp-pointed metal pin with a raised helical thread running around it and a slotted head, used to join things together by being rotated so that it pierces wood or other material and is held tightly in place.

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THREADED JOINTS

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are detachable joints of two or more component parts either directly connected with each other or by standardized fasteners.

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FINISHES

Back 120

complete the manufacture or decoration of (a material, object, or place) by giving it an attractive surface appearance.

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FINISHING IS FOR

Back 121

They can protect the element they finish from impact, water, frost, corrosion, abrasion, and so on, and/or they can be decorative.

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FINISHING TECHNIQUES

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Metal Plating, Brushed Metal, Buff Polishing, Metal Grinding, Metal Vibratory Finishing, Sand Blasting, Powder Coating, Hot Blackening.

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METAL PLATING

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Plating is a manufacturing process in which a thin layer of metal coats a substrate.

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BRUSHED METAL

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dull polished metal is metal with a uni directional satin finish. It is produced by polishing the metal.

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BUFF POLISHING

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Is a finishing processes for smoothing a workpiece's surface using an abrasive and a work wheel or a leather strop.

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METAL GRINDING

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is most often a manual operation at job shops while large custom parts fabricators will automate through the use of finishing machines.

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METAL VIBRATORY FINISHING

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is a type of mass finishing manufacturing process used to deburr, radius, descale, burnish, clean, and brighten a large number of relatively small workpieces.

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SAND BLASTING

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is the operation of forcibly propelling a stream of abrasive material against a surface under high pressure to smooth a rough surface, roughen a smooth surface, shape a surface or remove surface contaminants.

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POWDER COATING

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is a type of coating that is applied as a free-flowing, dry powder.

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HOT BLACKENING

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It is used to add mild corrosion resistance, for appearance and to minimize light reflection.

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GLASS

Back 131

a hard, brittle substance, typically transparent or translucent, made by fusing sand with soda, lime, and sometimes other ingredients and cooling rapidly. It is used to make windows, drinking containers, and other articles.

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COMPOSITION OF GLASS

Back 132

MELTING POINT 1,500 °C. soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide (CaO), also called lime, and several minor additives.

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MANUFACTURING OF GLASS

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the float glass process that produces sheet glass, and glassblowing that produces bottles and other containers.

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BASIC TYPES OF GLASS

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FLOAT GLASS, SHEET GLASS, PATTERNED GLASS, WIRED GLASS

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FLOAT GLASS

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glass made by allowing it to solidify on molten metal.

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SHEET GLASS

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glass made in large sheets directly from the furnace or by making a cylinder and then flattening it.

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PATTERNED GLASS

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is a kind of decorative translucent glass with embossed patterns on one or both surfaces.

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WIRED GLASS

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glass with wire netting embedded in it during manufacture to reduce the probability of its shattering when cracked by shock or by heat.

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LAMINATED GLASS ( BULLET PROOF )

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is a type of safety glass that holds together when shattered.

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MODIFIED TYPES OF GLASS

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REFLECTIVE GLASS, INSULATING GLASS, SAFETY GLASS, GLASS BRICKS, TINTED GLASS

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REFLECTIVE GLASS

Back 141

is essentially ordinary float glass with a metallic coating that cuts off solar heat.

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INSULATING GLASS

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more commonly known as double glazing, consists of two or three glass window panes separated by a vacuum or gas filled space to reduce heat transfer across a part of the building envelope.

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SAFETY GLASS

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( LAMINATED GLASS AND TOUGHENED GLASS ) glass that has been toughened or laminated so that it is less likely to splinter when broken.

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GLASS BRICKS

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provide visual obscuration while admitting light. Today they are used in walls, skylights, and sidewalk lights.

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TINTED GLASS

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is a thin laminate film that can be installed to the interior or exterior of glass surfaces in automobiles and boats and also to the interior or exterior of glass in homes and buildings.

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USAGE OF GLASS IN GENERAL

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WINDOWS, STRUCTURAL GLAZING, DOORS, PARTITIONS, MURALS ON GLASS, SPECIAL USES

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WINDOWS

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an opening in the wall or roof of a building or vehicle that is fitted with glass or other transparent material in a frame to admit light or air and allow people to see out.

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STRUCTURAL GLAZING

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is a system of bonding glass to a building's structural framing members utilizing a high strength, high performance silicone sealant specifically designed and tested for structural glazing.

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DOORS

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a hinged, sliding, or revolving barrier at the entrance to a building, room, or vehicle, or in the framework of a cupboard.

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PARTITIONS

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the action or state of dividing or being divided into parts.

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MURALS ON GLASS

Back 151

a painting or other work of art executed directly on a wall.

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SPECIAL USES

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FIRE RESISTENT, SOLAR REFLECTIVE, BULLETPROOF GLASS.

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CURTAIN WALLING

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is an outer covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural, utilized to keep the weather out and the occupants in. Since the curtain wall is non-structural, it can be made of lightweight materials, thereby reducing construction costs.

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ANNEALED GLASS

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is actually a process of slowly cooling glass to relieve internal stresses after it is formed.