Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
215 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
(6) What neuroanatomical directions are these: Superior Anterior Posterior Inferior Dorsal Ventral Caudal Rostral |
Superior: Top Anterior: Front Posterior: back Inferior: bottom Dorsal: UP Ventral: DOWN Caudal: Right Rostral: Left |
|
|
(6) What makes up the: Brainstem (2) Diencephalon (2) Forebrain (3) |
Brainstem: Hindbrain and Midbrain Diencephalon: Thalamus and Hypothalamus Forebrain: Basal Ganglia Limbic System Cerebral cortex |
|
|
(6) Of these spinal cord nerves, what are they responsible in controlling? 1. Cervical 2. Thoracic 3. Lumbar 4. Sacral |
Cervical: controls upper limb muscles Thoracic: controls muscles of the trunk and chest (including abdominal muscles) Lumbar: controls lower limb and lower back muscles Sacral: control bowel and bladder muscles |
|
|
(6) What is difference in components of |
- Gray matter is composed of cell bodies and neurons - White matter is myelinated and unmyelinated axons forming the ascending and descending tracts |
|
|
(6) What is the difference between the Ventral & Dorsal Horn |
Dorsal: It's a smaller part of the grey matter (neurons, tracts) Ventral: larger part of grey matter that has cell bodies of motor neurons (alpha motor neurons) |
|
|
(6) Since spinal neurons help execute movement, what do the axons of these 4 types of neurons do: 1. Local Interneurons 2. Propriospinal neurons 3. Projection neurons 4. Motor neurons |
1. Local: axons are confined to the same or adjacent spinal segment (remain on one spinal segment) 2. Propriospinal: axons reach distant spinal segments 3. Projection: axons ascend to higher brain centres 4. Motor: axons exit the nervous system to innervate muscles |
|
|
(6) What are motor neuron pools, or motor nuclei? |
clusters of cell bodies of motor neurons that innervate muscles. they form longitudinal columns extending over one to four spinal segments |
|
|
(6) What is the proximal-distal rule |
motor nuclei innervating proximal muscles lie more medially motor nuclie innervating distal muscles lie more laterally within the spinal cord |
|
|
(6) What two components make up a motor unit? |
Motor neuron + Muscle Fibre |
|
|
(6) How many fibres do motor neurons innervate? How many neurons innervate one fibre? |
a single neuron can innervate many fibres a muscle fibre is innervated by one neuron |
|
|
(6) What is the purpose of Slow and Fast twitch motor units? |
Slow: Fatigue resistance Fast: contribute more power |
|
|
(6) What does Size and Number of motor units relate to? |
Size: relates to need for refined movement (more refined movement = fewer fibres per motor unit) Number: related to the power needed to generate movement |
|
|
(6) In terms of relation between contractile force and motor unit size, what do your muscles recruit in order to increase force? What about fine movements? |
if you want to increase the force of a muscle, recruit more motor units, which can be larger. Larger motor units contain more muscle fibres For fine movements: smaller motor units |
|
(6) Explain the size principle of motor unit recruitment - Small motor units... - Frequency of stimulation from brain.... - Total muscle tension... |
- Smaller motor units have smaller motor neurons. This is activated at lower frequency of stimulation from the CNS, and at a lower threshold for activation. - Frequency of stimulation from brain increase AP frequency and tension of the first motor unit, then other larger motor units are brought to threshold to contribute - Total muscle tensions reflects sum of motor unit activation in a motor neuron pool |
|
|
(6) What are two ways you can increase force of contraction (muscle force) 1. Motor neurons... 2. Tetany.... |
1. Activate more motor neurons (recruit more muscle fibres) 2. Increase the frequency of AP's in the muscle fibre, which produces tetany (sustained contraction of muscle fibre) |
|
|
(6) Why do we recruit slow-twitch before fast-twitch fibres? |
first fibres to activate are more resistant to fatigue |
|
(6) Review: Nerve Muscle Synapse - Synaptic boutons - ACh |
Axon of motor neuron innervates muscle at end plate. Axon loses myelin sheath and branches into synaptic boutons, which is the presynaptic membrane. It releases acetylcholine into the synaptic clef,t which moves to the junctional fold, where ACh receptors take it at the post-synaptic membrane |
|
(6) Review: Depolarizing |
- Depolarize axon - Ca2+ enters synaptic boutons, ACh released - end plate is depolarized from ACh-receptor complex - Voltage gated Na+ channels open - AP propagated |
|
|
(6) What are spinal reflexes? - How do they control movements? - What kind of muscle contraction? - what integrates responses? |
- reflexes are highly adaptable and controls movements in a purposeful manner - produce coordinated patterns of muscle contraction - neuronal networks in the spinal cord integrate responses |
|
|
(6) What is the difference between convergence and divergence in spinal cord? |
Divergence: Sensory receptor neurons Convergence: motor neurons |
|
(6) Explain the tendon tap reflex |
An unexpected stretch is picked up by the muscle spindle. 1a afferents contacts the motor neurons and synergists, causing the muscle to return to its original length |
|
|
(6) Go through the process Withdrawal and Crossed extension reflex from a painful stimulus, AKA you step on a nail |
1. The pain stimuli activates your nociceptor 2. The primary sensory neuron enters spinal cord and diverges 3a. One collateral activates ascending pathways for pain and postural adjustment 3b. Withdrawal reflex pulls foot away from pain 3c. Crossed extensor reflex supports body as weight shifts away from pain |
|
|
(6) Describe postural reflexes. What happens? |
When your stance is perturbed IE by external force (wind), specific muscles are activated to bring you back to stance |
|
|
(6) Explain the components of postural reflex: (SLR) Short Latency Response (MLR) Medium Latency Response (LLR) Long Latency Response Define latency: |
SLR: Nonfunctional response, 30-50ms MLR: Functional response 70-90ms (higher level control like the brain stem LLR: Stepping, Reaching to recover balance, >100ms. longest amount of time to be implemented, involves cortical regions Latency: the time it takes for the reflex to be implemented after perturbation |
|
(6) Task Dependent Reflexes: How does the reflex response depend on the task? One task you are holding a table, the other you are holding a cup |
If you are holding the table, you are flexing (excitatory) to brace for impact/prevent from moving forward For the cup, you are inhibiting your muscle to move as you are holding a filled cup |
|
|
(6) What does supraspinal control over reflexes do for suppression/enhancement? |
- a smaller stimulus could trigger a reflex- you are acting on basic circuitry, so you could influence magnitude of basic response. Descending pathways can suppress or enhance reflex pathways - you dont perceive pain as strongly, EG they distract kids before flu shots because attention perceives more strongly. |
|
|
(6) Describe these neonatal reflexes: 1. Startle Reflex (Moro) 2. Tonic Neck Reflex 3. Righting Reflex 4. Grasp Reflex 5. Babinski Reflex 6. Crawling/Swimming Reflex 7. Stepping |
1. If there is an unexpected noise, or change in body position, the arms and legs move symmetrically outward, upward, and inward. Hands and feet open and then clench 2. If the head is turned to one side, the arm and leg on the side which the head faces extends, while the limbs on the other side flex. 3. If you pull a baby up to sitting position, they try to keep their head erect 4. If you put pressure in the palm of hand/foot, the fingers curl as if to grasp it 5. if you touch the bottom of the foot, the foot pulls up, and the toes fan out with the big toe raised 6. if the belly is on the ground or in water, there are alternating patterns of extension/flexion of the arms and legs 7. If you hold up a baby with feet in contact with surface, they will lift and plant feet in succession |
|
(6) What do Central Pattern Generators (CPG's) do Explain how the two systems inhibit each other Movements using CPG examples? |
Isolated spinal cord can generate rhythmic bursts of reciprocal activity in flexor and extensor motor neurons. The two systems mutually inhibit each other: If you activate extensor half centre, it activates the motor neurons controlling extensor muscles, the flexors are then inhibited. it’s a neural circuitry/network in the spinal cord. even if you isolate it from everything else (upper systems, etc), and sensory information from the periphery, on its own it can generate a pattern of activity in a rhythmic pattern. Examples: walking, swimming, respiration |
|
|
(6) What is three things is locomotion an interaction between? |
1. CPG (rhythmic spinal cord circuitry) 2. Sensory feedback (GTO's, spindles, cutaneous mechanoreceptors) 3. Descending input (MLR, brainstem and cortical tracts) |
|
|
(6) In Locomotion, explain what the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) does |
the MLR initiates walking. a motor needs to be started. once it starts, it runs. it needs input to initiate locomotion. In the brain stem, stimulating the MLR triggers locomotion. More stimulation, increased speed of locomotion |
|
|
(6) Explain hip proprioception - EG: Immobilized cat and oscillating the hip joint |
Through muscle spindle input, stretch of hip flexor muscles causes shift to swing phase oscillating the hip joint in an immobolized cat, We see that there is alternating activity in the knee. If you stretch the hip flexors, the spindles in those muscles sense that stretch and trigger initiation of swing phase. |
|
|
(6) What would happen if you electrically stimulated the 1b afferents (GTO's) to stimulated load in the leg muscles while walking? How does this relate to locomotion? |
The leg remains in stance phase due to prolonged extensors in the leg. The swing phase cannot happen if there is load on the leg, as your load it put on the opposite leg once you swing. Muscle spindle input and GTO input are critical in controlling swing/stance phase in locomotion |
|
|
(6) What does the brainstem do? What are the two main systems that neurons project to the spinal cord and their functions |
Brainstem: modulates the action of the spinal motor circuits Medial Pathway: basic postural control system controlling predominantly axial and proximal muscles Lateral Pathways: concerned with goal directed limb movement, and predominantly control muscles of the limbs |
|
|
(6) Explain these pathways: 1. Reticulospinal 2. Vestibulospinal 3. Rubrospinal |
1. Reticulospinal: sarting in reticular formation, it functions to maintain posture and modulate muscle tone 2. Vestbitulo: starting in vestibular nuclei, it functions to control posture & balance and orientation of the head & body in space 3. Rebro: Starting in red nucleus, it produces excitatory influence to motor neurons innervating proximal upper limb flexors |
|
|
(6) EXAM POTENTIAL: Describe these three cerebellar divisions, such as location, where it projects/receives info: 1. VESTIBULOCEREBELLUM 2. SPINOCEREBELLUM 3. CEREBROCEREBELLUM |
1. V: The flocculondular lobe - receives input from vestibular nuclei (& neck proprio & visual input), and projects to it for postural control 2. S: Vermis and intermediate cerebellar hemisphere - projects to/through spinal tracts - provides info of proprio and what limbs are doing 3. C: lateral cerebellar hemispheres - connected to cortical areas involved in motor control - allows cerebellum to be involved in higher level processes |
|
|
(6) Explain the relationship between the cerebellum and movement. - Timing - Regulation EXAM POTENTIAL try to relate these functions of the cerebellum those previous subdivisions |
- Receives feedback and allows for comparison of plan with actual motor response (feedback) (vest and spino) - acts with cerebral cortex to produce skilled movements by coordinating the activities of groups of muscles (cerebro -important for motor learning (new motor skills) (cerebro) -movement timing: - initiating the activity of the appropriate muscle at the appropriate time (spino?) -helps maintain balance (vestibulo) -regulates eye movements (vestibulo) -makes movement smooth, not jerky (timing control) (cerebro?) |
|
|
(6) Explain these disorders due to damage to the cerebellum: Dysmetria: Dysdiadochokinesis: Gait Ataxia: |
Dysmetria: difficulty with selection of trajectory (EG: going from a spot across from you to your nose) Dysdiadochokinesis: abnormalities rapid alternating movements Gait ataxia: coordination problem; you walk as if you are drunk. Slow and halting with wide base of support and path deviation |
|
|
(6) Where does the Basal Ganglia receive input? Where does it project to? |
It does not have direct input to the spinal cord. It receives major input from the cerebral cortex. It projects back to the cerebral cortex through the thalamus |
|
|
(6) Relating Basal Ganglia to movement, what do these loops relate to: 1. Motor Loop 2. Oculomotor Loop 3. Prefrontal Loop 4. Limbic Loop |
1. Related to movement; linked to primary motor cortex and premotor cortex 2. Related to eye movements; linked to frontal eye fields 3. Related to decision making; linked to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex 4. related to emotions |
|
|
(6) Relating Basal Ganglia to movement, describe the functions - Actions - Movements - Controls Activity... - Muscle Force - Motor Learning - Movement Vigor |
1. Action selection (PPC/PM) 2. initiation of movement (loop with motor cortical areas) 3. controls activity of agonists and antagonists 4. assist muscle force control 5. motor learning: concept of reward/punishment that comes with learning 6. movement vigor: relates to movement speed. In parkinsons, movements are slower due to damage to basal ganglia |
|
|
(6) Cerebral Cortex Organization What are all 7 regions? |
1. Prefrontal cortex 2. Supplementary Motor Area 3. Premotor Cortex 4. Motor Cortex 5. Somatosensory Cortex 6. Posterior Parietal Cortex 7. Visual Cortex
|
|
|
(6) Sensorimotor Integration and Coordinate Transformations: Explain what 'signals' are put into common 'language' Reach: - brain must... - hand and target... |
- Sensory inputs from visual, vestibular, somatosensory, and auditory to be converted into reference frames for motor centres Reach: - Brain must compute difference b/w hand and target (motor error or difference vector) - hand and target position can each be defined with respect to a number of reference frames (eye, hand, body-centered coordinates) |
|
|
(6) Posterior Parietal Cortex (PPC) What are the two visual streams and their concerns? |
Dorsal: - concerned with representation of space for guiding actions - uses egocentric frames of reference - feeds into PPC Ventral: -DOES NOT GO TO PPC - concerned with object recognition and perception (can be important for guiding action - uses object-centered frame of reference |
|
|
(6) Posterior Parietal Cortex (PPC) - What is it involved with - What roles does it have - What can lesions result in? |
- involved in planning and on-line control of movement. It's linketo cerebellum and premotor cortex - role in sensorimotor transformation (intraparietal sulcus) and spatial maps/spatial working memory -lesions can result in neglect or ataxia (inaccurate movements) |
|
|
(6) Posterior Parietal Cortex (PPC) Describe what these regions represents, what their neurons receive and what roles they have: 1. Parietal Eye Field 2. Parietal Arm Fields OR Reach Region 3. Parietal Grasp Field 4. Parietal Face Field |
1. PEF: represents locations of objects you plan on looking at. Neurons here response to visual/auditory stimuli. It has a role in eye movements 2. PAF/PRR: reps locations of region of space you can reach to (peripersonal space). Neurons receive both visual/somatosensory input, and have roles in guiding arm movement 3. PGF: reps shape info required to grasps objects (not necess location). Has role in grasping actions 4. PFF: reps the ultra near space used to guide movement of the head, mouth, lips. Neurons receive visual/tactile input from face |
|
|
(6) Posterior Parietal Cortex (PPC) Movement Planning |
Neurons in Posterior Parietal Cortex are Active Before Movement |
|
|
(6) Cortical Contribution to Locomotion - PPC Explain how PPC neurons relate to locomotion |
PPC neurons are related to motor planning of gait modifications - activity is increased before stepping over obstacles |
|
|
(6) What are the motor areas of the brain? |
Prefrontal Cortex Supplementary Motor Area Premotor Cortex Primary Motor Cortex |
|
|
(6) Supplementary Motor Area: What is it involved with? What if there's a lesion? What is it important for? What may it have a role in? |
Involved in selection of movement sequences from internal cues (eg. memory). A lesion may result in impaired selection of movement sequence - important for bimanual movements - may have a role in learning sequences (high activity when learning motor sequence) |
|
|
(6) Premotor Cortex: What is it involved with? What if there's a lesion?What may it have a role in? |
Involved in selection of movement sequences from external cues (eg. trajectory). A lesion can result in motor apraxia (deficit in motor performance w/out paralysis) since selection of movement is impaired -has a role in decision making, as it is linked to selection of movement trajectories. It's performed in conjunction with other brain regions |
|
(6) Premotor Cortex vs Motor Cortex during Reaching Task: - two spatial choices are given, and one choice is cued after a delay. Multiple cells shown with preferred directions arranged. |
- Note activity increases in population of PM cells for each potential reach target during memory delay period -Activity further increases in specific group and peaks at movement onset |
|
|
(6) Primary Motor Cortex (M1) - what is related to muscle force - direction of movement is determined.... - motor cortex is influenced by... |
- individual neurons are related to muscle force - direction of movement is determined not by the action of single neurons but by the net action of large population of neurons - influenced by both cortical and subcortical inputs |
|
|
(6) individual neurons are related to muscle force - what happens when we enable flexors in the arm? what happens to the neurons? |
The PTN's (pyraidal tract neurons) show more activity, which is a motor cortex neuron |
|
|
(6) Organization of Movement - Cortex - cerebral cortex modulates.... - cortical motor commands descend in two tracts: Corticobulbar fibres and Corticospinal Fibres control.... in the/innervate the... -Corticospinal tract influences .... |
-modulates the action of motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord - two tracts: - Corticobulbar fibres control the motor nuclei in the brainstem that move facial muscles - Corticospinal fibres control spinal motor neurons that innervate trunk and limb muscles - influences spinal motor pathways by acting on the descending brainstem pathways or alpha motorneurons |
|
|
(6) Motor areas influence many descending pathways. They can act through: (2) |
Corticospinal tract Brainstem pathways |
|
|
(6) Fibres cross in the pyramidial/motor decussation to control what muscles? They originate in how many layers of the cerebral cortex? What are the 6 locations they are found in? |
contralateral muscles 5 layers 1. Primary motor cortex (31%) 2. Premotor and SMA (29%) 3. Parietal cortex & SI (3,1,2) and PPC (5 & 7) 4. Cingulate gyrus |
|
|
(6) What is the corticospinal tract's function what tract is it a part of what can lesions do? |
it functions to control voluntary movement of the distal limb muscles part of the lateral descending tracts lesions: results in debilitating consequences (can't necessarily grasp things properly) |
|
|
(6) In relation to the cortical region's contribution to locomotion, what does the primary motor cortex neurons do? what is it associated with |
the PMC neurons increase their activity during a step over an obstacle. It is associated with enhanced activity in muscles |
|
|
(6) What are the descending tracts of the motor/sensory neural pathways? (6) What are the ascending tracts of the motor/sensory neural pathways? (7) |
Descending:
1. Lateral Corticospinal 2. Rubrospinal 3. Olivospinal 4. Tectospinal 5. Ventral Corticospinal 6. Vestibulospinal Ascending: 1. Fasciculus Gracilis 2. Fasciculus Cuneatus 3. Dorsal Spinocerebellar 4. Lateral Spinothalamic 5. Ventral Spinocerebellar 6. Spinotectal 7. Ventral Spinothalamic |
|
|
(6) What do we consider when we prepare a voluntary movement? What does the nervous system/individual need to know to prep, plan, and execute movement? (2) Also think about limb characteristics. (4) What about object manipulation? (3) define end state comfort control |
1. What are the task constraints?
2. What are the environmnetal constraints? (in relation to limb characteristics) 3. What is the limb's position at the moment? 4. Which direction do i need to move? 5. What is the specific trajectory to follow? 6. With what accuracy should i move? (object manipulation) 7. How much force is required? 8. What is the effect on the kinematics of my movement 9. End-state comfort control: for a given location of object placement, choose the most comfy body config. |
|
|
(6) Starting at Decision Making (DLPFC) and Vision of Target/Goal (V1), what is the process/organization of the cortical regions? Hint: Integration of Proprio Command to Muscles Selection of Movement Trajectory Object MOtion & Form Sensory Integration/Motor Planning/Sensorimotor Transformations |
|
|
|
(6) Anticipatory Postural Adjustments (APA's) - What does the CNS do? - What is the definition of APA -activation/inhibition of muscles.... - postural adjustments can be.... -what is the purpose of APA? |
- CNS utilizes anticipation of what the task will require
-APAs mean that the onset of the postural changes occurs prior to the onset of the postural disturbance due to the movement - activation/inhibition of muscles involved in postural control precede the prime mover onset - postural adjustments and the onset of movement can be time locked, too |
|
|
(6 ) What is the purpose of APA? (2) - what does it minimize - when does it occur |
Purpose is to: 1. maintain equilibrium 2. Stabilize the position of relevant body segments - minimize potential disturbance that the movement may cause - occurs during most movements |
|
|
(6) In relation to APAs, explain what would happen if your Centre of Pressure moved right. What would happen to your Centre of Gravity? |
the COP moves right, which initiates your centre of gravity to sway to the left. This is a tilt. Your centre of pressure returns to your support side, located in the final position before your ankle movement starts. the COP and COg are stationary during your leg raise (your right leg). This is a dynamic balance of limb movements |
|
(6) For APAs and Task-dependent responses: What activity do we expect to see |
|
|
|
(7) What is a theory? What is a theory of motor control? |
Theory: a set of interconnected statements that describe unobservable structures of processes and relate them to each other and to observable events Theory of motor control: a group of abstract ideas about the control of movement |
|
|
(7) 1.Who started the Reflex Theory? (should know) 2. What are reflexes? 3. What is reflex chaining? 4. What is the stimulus-response idea? |
1. Charles Sherrington in late 1800s-early 1900's formed the foundation for this 2. Reflexes are building blocks of complex behaviour 3. Complex behaviour is the combined action of individual reflexes that were chained together 4. Receptor -> conductor (axon/neuron) -> effector (muscle) |
|
|
(7) What are some limitations of the reflex theory? 1. Why can't reflexes be the basic building blocks of behaviour? 2. Why can't it explain fast movements? 3. What does it fail to explain |
1. Reflexes can't be the basic building blocks of behaviour if spontaneous and voluntary movements are recognized, because a reflex must be activated by an outside stimulus 2. Can't explain fast movements - sequences of movements that occur too rapidly for sensory feedback to play a role 3. Fails to explain the fact that single stimulus can result in varying responses depending on context and supraspinal control (eg overriding reflexes) |
|
|
(7) What is the motor program theory? -What is a storage problem? |
- We don't have a plan for every action, nor do we have stored memory of the commands to the muscles for every action - storage problem would be that there wouldnt be sufficient capacity to store thousands of plans/commands. This relates to degrees of freedom problem |
|
|
(7) Motor Program Theory: It is not a sequence commands... why? How does this relate to the storage problem? Rather, what is a motor program? |
- If it was a sequence, it would require a look-up table (look through database of possible commands to match to task) - this relates to the storage problem : we cant actually store all these possible commands Rather, a motor program is a procedure or formula for generating motor commands. This provides a more flexible concept known as the GMP |
|
|
(7) Motor Program Theory: What is a Generalized Motor program? How is throwing a GMP? What are the components? (2) |
GMP: controls a class of actions rather than specific movements or sequences. A stored set of procedures or rules for generating commands Eg: there are many different ways of throwing something, but the act is still the same thing Components: - Parameters - Invariant features (features that are the same) |
|
|
(7) Motor Program Theory: Parameters: Give definition - examples? |
features that you can change from one situation to the next to specialize your action from one to another. EG: Duration, speed, force applied, muscles used (synergies) |
|
|
(7) Motor Program Theory: - What is Schmidt's Schema concept? What is Schema? - What is a Motor Response Schema? |
Schmidt Schema: part of one variation of the motor program theory. Schema is a rule/set of rules that serves to provide the basis for a decision (helps you choose proper parameters) Motor Response Schema: responsible for providing the rules governing the performance of a skill in a given situation. Facilitates the selection of the parameters for the motor program |
|
|
(7) Motor Program Theory: - What are invariant features? examples given? |
- Features of an action that remain almost the same each time regardless of different parameters - are a unique set of characteristics that defines a motor program and doesnt change from one action to another EG: Kinematic profiles, sequence of components, relative time |
|
|
(7) Motor Program Theory: What is relative time? Explain in the sense of an index finger pressing a key at normal speed of 10 seconds |
If you press a key for 3, 2, 4, and 1 seconds (10 sec), if you did it faster (5 sec) you cut everything in half (1.5,1,2,0.5). So in relativity, it's all the same. |
|
|
(7) Evidence for Motor Programs: Reaching In the example of a target that is far away, or very close, what would we see in relation to hand velocity and acceleration? Are they the same, or different? -what does this indicated? -what does the motor program define? |
- V and Accel are scaled in proportion, and are the same -longer distance, the greater initial hand accel and higher peak hand velocity -movement is planned before initiated - GMP defines: spatial features of movements and forces required to produce desired movement (kinematics and dynamics respectively) |
|
|
(7) Motor Program Summary: Can we say that walking is a program? Why or why not? - What are the two levels for motor programs |
Walking is an action, not the program; the motor program is the plan that results in the action The program is a set of rules, the neural circuitry is the physical embodiment of these rules -Higher level, effector-independent level -Lower level: converts the output of the higher level into the commands that are sent to the motorneuron pools and associated interneurons |
|
|
(7) How is writing your name a GMP? |
If you write with your dom hand, non-dom hand, mouth, or foot, this implies that writing your name is a class of action with invariant features with different parameters |
|
|
(7) Motor Program Theory: - how is sensory feedback used? - sensors.... - errors.... |
sensory feedback: -peripheral sensors (muscle spindles) can act to correct small transient perturbations without altering the higher level motor program (EG: stretch reflex) - if there are errors in the commands reflected in movement error, feedback from vision (for eg) can alter the program (ie parameters) |
|
|
(7) How are walking and running different motor programs? Talk about invariant features and parameters |
They use different invariant features. For example, b/w walking and running, phases are very different in terms of speed and step cycle. Walking step cycle is an invariant feature. Changing invariant features = changing motor program |
|
|
(7) |
|
|
|
(7) Dynamic Action/Pattern Theory - Is there a need for higher centres? How does movement emerge? What interaction does it focus on? Is there a hierarchal framework? -What is a control parameter? When does it happen? Example? |
- no need for a higher centre issuing commands. Movement could emerge as a result of interacting elements without motor programs. The system is self-organizing, and focuses on interaction b/w individual and environ. There is no hierarchal framework -Control Parameter: Regulates changes in behaviour. This comes into affect when there is a critical change in the system that suggests new movement. EG: Velocity - reaches a critical point during walking, and becomes a trot/run |
|
|
(7) Dynamic Action/Pattern Theory: Coordinative Structures - What are they? What are they also called - How are they developed? |
- Skilled action results when a person's nervous system constrains "functionally specific synergies of muscles and joints to act cooperatively" - they are also called synergies - can be developed through practice or experience or exist naturally |
|
|
(7) Dynamic Action/Pattern Theory: Self Organization - what is it? - rather than specific by a motor program... How is a hurricane of an example? |
-when certain conditions characterize a situation, a specific pattern of limb movement emerges - rather than specified by a motor program (by a central command) the coordinate pattern of movement self-organizes within the framework of the environmental conditions and limb dynamics (attractor states change abruptly by self organization Hurricane: - is self organized - becomes big depending on environment- doesnt simply start due to a push a button |
|
|
(7) Dynamic Action/Pattern Theory: What are attractor states? They are also known as efficient states for having these traits (2) What do we mean by Stability? Example? |
Attractors: stable behavioural steady states. They are the preferred behavioural state'. They have minimal variability and optimal energy. Stability: a system that when perturbed returns to stable state (Punching Bag) |
|
|
(7) Dynamic Action/Pattern Theory: What are Order and Control Parameters? |
Both: non-linear equations need to be developed to describe phenomena. These are variables needed that are responsible for an associated with coordination Order: Define overall behaviour (eg relative phase) Control: Represents variables that upon increase/decrease will influence the stability/character of the order (EG Speed/Movement frequency) |
|
|
(7) Dynamic Action/Pattern Theory: What is the kelso experiment? |
It shows abrupt in-phase transition with bilateral finger movements. basically, make your fingers go right and left, but as you go really faster then they simply just open up and down. they become the same phase - initially out of phase - becomes in phase |
|
|
(7) Walk-to-run Gait Changes How does the 1. Motor Program Theory 2. Dynamic Action/Pattern Theory (Two attractors competing) explain this? |
1. GMP: Relative time of coordinated pattern distinguishes one motor program from another. Walking and running are controlled by diff. motor programs. Transition occurs when person chooses to change from the motor program controlling walking to that controlling running 2. DAP: Limb and body coordination patterns self-organize as a function of speed (parameter) and environmental conditions. Two attractors competing : Slow speeds: attractor state is walking coordination system Fast speeds: at certain speeds, the we stable walking attractor state loses stability and running coordination pattern self-organizes and becomes the stable attractor state |
|
|
(7) Dynamic Pattern Theory: - what initiates movement - what dictates self-organization - what changes attractor state? |
- Central Command OR stimulus initiates movement - properties of muscles, limbs, and environment dictate self-organization to a stable attractor state (which is defined by a particular value of an order parameter) - changing a control parameter to a critical level abruptly changes attractor state and movement |
|
|
(7) What is the Role Of Sensory Feedback for Internal Models? What do sensory systems do? |
It helps estimate limb/body state - sensory systems (and their respective receptors) provide important info for guiding movement |
|
|
(7) Limitations of Sensory Feedback? (think of three) |
- There are delays of sensory feedback, and making plans takes more time - Sensory receptors are noisy - motor systems that encode in a similar manner don't understand sensory feedback since it is encoded differently |
|
|
(7) Noise in the Nervous System Define: 1.Sensor Noise 2.Motor Noise 3.Sensorimotor Noise 4.Potential Causes of Noise 5.what noise results in |
1. Inaccurate sensory receptors (noisy) leads to uncertainty about target location and/or body position 2. Noise in motor commands results in variable movements 3. noise from combining sensory feedback signals and transformation of info to motor system 4. Spontaneous AP's generated by receptors/neurons, or random opening/closing of ion channels, or muscle fatigue (lead to change in discharge) 5. decreased accuracy (quantified by constant error) and less precision (quantified by variable error) |
|
|
(7) Define an Internal Model |
- Neural circuits that can mimic the input/output characteristics or their inverse, of the part of the body to move - These processes occur in the brain |
|
|
*EXAM* (7) Explain the three types of internal models: 1. Cognitive model 2. Inverse model 3. Forward model |
1. COGNITIVE: Model of how objects work based on prior experience with the object or one that is similar (eg we know basketball bounces) 2. INVERSE: Calcs necessary motor commands from desired trajectory info and knowledge of where the limb is at the moment. Also referred to as control policy - creates motor commands to perform in a given situation 3. FORWARD: predicts sensory consequences of movement based on copy of motor command -job is to predict. It predicts future states, and future sensory consequences of the movements |
|
(7) Inverse Internal Models Explain: - Inverse Kinematic Transformation - Inverse Dynamic Transformation |
Kin: The joint angles optimal to bring the hand to the cup given its initial position. helps determine velocity/accel based on target distance, and based on what you want to do. Dynamic: Force, and torque on those joints to drive the hand to the object |
|
|
(7) INTERNAL MODELS: Define - Forward Model -efference copy - State Estimation |
- Forward: Models the relationship b/w actions and their consequences - Predicts sensory consequences from a copy of the motor command based on predicted limb position from a model that understands limb dynamics. - an efference copy is the copy of the motor command
- State Estimation: Process of combining predicted sensory feedback with actual feedback to form a belief about the state of our body and/or the world/environment - predictions of what is going to happen to update your state of where you are and where you’re going to be instead of just relying on feedback now you have something else to account/alleviate those issues with feedback |
|
|
(7) INTERNAL MODELS: explain the relationship between forward model and state estimation when the forward model receives a copy of the motor command. |
B/c the forward model receives a copy of the motor command, based on that command it says: “ if my initial state is x, after a motor command what will be my future state? I should end up in y state after that motor command is executed. What will be my sensory feedback coming in given my motor command” - this happens before you start moving. You predict what will happen before you even do it. - this helps with STATE ESTIMATION: it has predictions of what is going to happen to update your state of where you are and where you’re going to be instead of just relying on feedback, now you have something else to account/alleviate those issues with feedback |
|
(7) Internal Models: Forward And Inverse: - In this case, the guy in this picture is holding on to a ball, and the initial position is chest high. The future state is putting the ball up to your face. - What will the inverse model do? - What will the forward model do? (Dynamic and Sensory) |
- The inverse model will take info on the task. It will take into consideration position of the body, and the context (in this case: object he’s interacting with - weight, size) Forward Dynamic: Use the motor command, and initial (previous) state of the body and it’s going to predict what will be your future state.
Forward Sensory: Takes that prediction of the future state, and it’s going to use information of the motor command in context, and it’s going to predict what kind of sensory feedback you are going to get. |
|
(7) -What is the motor plan based on? -What is it converted to? -Where does the efference copy go? |
- Goal (tobring yourself to that target, you want your distance to become 0), State of Limb (where you are), Target (final destination) -converted to a motor command by an inverse internal model. The internal model takes plan, does inverse kinematic and dynamic info, and makes motor commands to execute goal -the efference copy goes to the forward model |
|
(7) Guaraneed will be on exam: Based on these aspects, explain what will happen when you need to run for the bus. Talk about - Goal Target State Estimate End Point Where it all goes Motor Command Copy Of Motor Predictions Corrections Forward Model |
Goal: make the bus or you will be late for class Target: Bus State Estimate: your current state, you where where you are End Point: Reduce dist b/w you and bus All of this is sent to inverse model MOTOR COMMAND: Inverse model will initiate running. You you will get sensory feedback, like load, bottom of feet, muscle spindles, etc. Copy is sent to forward model, and predicts sensory consequences such as the foot contact w/ the ground. Corrections are done to correct posture, and update state Forward Model: predicts future state and future consequences (feedback you should get). System is going to compare your predictions with the actual feedback when you come in and perform it, and it’s going to see if there is a match between the two. If they match, or marginally different, then the system will say DONE |
|
(7) Same as internal model and Forward model, but this shows how forward and inverse work |
Inverse takes sensory info and transforms it into motor information (it gives you a motor command) Forward: takes copy of motor command and it gives you predicted sensory information They work in opposite direction, but it’s the same principle as the previous slide |
|
|
(7) Error when predicted and actual sensory feedback don't match. 1. If error is temporary... 2. If error is constant... |
1. you simply adjust the relative weighting b/w using predicted versus actual feedback to estimate state 2. you must update your internal models, which is caused by growth, age, injury, or experiment |
|
|
(7) How do we know there is evidence for internal models? Talk about force field perturbations and prism glasses |
By experiment: Force Field perturbations: Causing dynamic adaptation over repeated trials EG: reach to a target, and you’re holding on to a joystick. but your arm is stuck into an apparatus. So, you are doing a very robotic movement. - if force field is turned on, force will act on arm and push your arm away from the intended trajectory- unable to reach target in straight path (curveD) - velocity dependent: faster you move, stronger force pushing your arm- therefore, to compensate: apply more force to counter-act the effect of field - you adapt: you come back to a straight trajectory even within a forcefield. - after effect: if you suddenly turn off field, arm will curve the other way (after effect) - proves that you adapted to the dynamics (DYNAMIC ADAPTATION) Prism glasses or VR: - You’re wearing glasses, that shift what you see to one side by a certain amount - shift of visual field to one side based on the strength of the prism - now you reach with the goggles on, and you end up missing - over several trials, you adapt and finally reach the target. |
|
|
(7) Looking at foot placement during visually guided walking relies on state estimation. What happens when we give prism glasses? What does greater uncertainty lead to? |
The main hypothesis: If actual sensory feedback is noisy/less reliable, you will rely LESS on that information. You put less weight on info if it’s unreliable noisy, unreliable feedback: they change the length of the prism lenses every trial. This means that the sensory prediction error is different every time. Predict that the brain becomes less sensitive to errors with greater uncertainty – Relies less on visual feedback of errors More uncertainty: – Less error on initial adaptation – Slower adaptation more noise, more variability during baseline/adaptation = less you will rely on the information b/c you can’t count on the feedback you get b/c error is constantly shifting |
|
|
(7) Prediction & Grip Force Control: when you assume a carton of milk is full, you grip and lift in a way that it was full. What happens if you assume wrong? - what if you assume it was rough but ended up being super slippery? |
when you lift, you use way too much force and you have to correct so you dont throw it across the room cutaneous receptor feedback: slipping information from receptors that signal for compensation of grip force |
|
|
(8) Classifying Impairments Associated with CNS Lesions - What are Signs? - What are Symptoms? - What is a negative sign/symptom characterized by? - What is a positive sign/symptom characterized by? |
- Signs: objective findings determined through a physical exam (high blood pressure, eye movement problem - Symptoms: subjective perceptions that a patient describes but may not necessarily be readily documented with a physical examination (eg dizziness, fatigue, muscle or joint pain) Negative: a loss of normal behaviour (eg paresis) Positive: release of abnormal behaviours (eg exaggerated reflexes |
|
|
(8) Classifying Impairments Associated with CNS Lesions - what impairments can CNS lesions result in? -What are the Impairments characterized by? |
-CNS lesions can result in different primary/secondary impairments/effects - Primary: affect neuromuscular sensory, an/or cognitive systems (direct result of lesion/damage) - Secondary: not directly result of a lesion/damage, but can impair movement nonetheless (develop because of the original problem |
|
|
(8) Primary Neuromuscular Impairments - What are some examples? - muscle strength = ? - explain the neural component - muscle weakness = ? - Paralysis or Paresis = ? |
- strength, weakness, paresis, & paralysis (or plegia) -Muscle Strength= ability to generate sufficient force in a muscle to produce a movement - neural component relates to: (1) the type of motor units recruited (2) the number of motor units recruited (3) the discharge frequency of motoneurons |
|
|
(8)Primary Neuromuscular Impairments muscle weakness = ? - Paralysis or Paresis = ? |
-Muscle Weakness = inability to generate normal levels of force ; total or severe loss of muscle activity is known as paralysis (or plegia) Paralysis or Paresis: decreased voluntary motor unit recruitment, and reflects an inability or difficulty in recruiting skeletal motor units to generate torque or movement |
|
|
EXAM QUESTION (8) Primary Neuromuscular Impairments: Parkinsons causes x impairments. Stroke? Relate specific conditions with the impairments of Hypotonia Flaccidity Spasticity Rigidity |
Parkinsons is very SPASTIC Stroke: Hypotona: flaccidity? or Rigidity? Spasticity? |
|
|
(8) What are these ranges of muscle tone defined by: Hypotonia Flaccidity Spasticity Rigidity - what is muscle tone characterized by |
Hypotonia: more difficult to move b/c muscles are less stiff, less resistance to passive stretch Flaccidity: complete lack of muscle tone; can’t hold yourself up Spasticity: increase in muscle tone, difficult to stand and take steps Rigidity: resistant to movement Muscle Tone: muscle resistance to passive stretch |
|
|
(8) -Define Spasticity - What is velocity-dependence? - In this definition, there is increased... |
- increased resistance to passive stretch, which is velocity-dependent - velocity-dependent increase in tonic stretch reflexes due to hyperexcitability of stretch reflex - there is increased alpha motoneuron excitability, meaning that the alpha motoneurons are more readily activated |
|
|
(8) What do we expect to see when someone has spastic paresis? Example being an elbow extension movement of diff. speeds |
we see more EMG activity in the muscle at 5 different velocities |
|
|
(8) Primary Neuromuscular Impairments: Coordination Problems - Activation and Sequencing Problems - Timing Problems - Scaling Forces |
-A&S Probs: Changes in muscle synergies, co-activation of muscles surrounding joints, difficulty coordinating muscle timing within a limb, and difficulty coordinating different limbs -Timing: Slower reaction, movement time. Problems terminating a movement -Scaling: inappropriate scaling of forces -Dysmetria: problems in judging distance or range of movement |
|
|
(8)Primary Neuromuscular Impairments: Involuntary movements - Dystonia - Associated Movements - Tremor -Choreiform Movements -Athetoid Movements |
Dystonia: sustained contractions, often from contraction of agonist and antagonist muscles - that can cause twisting and repetitive movements Ass Mvmnts: unintentional movement of one limb during voluntary movement of a different limb Tremor: oscillatory movement of a body part Choreiform: rapid, irregular and jerky movements Athetoid: Slow, writhing and twisting movements |
|
|
(8) Primary Sensory Impairments - Reduced ______ sensation and touch - impaired ___________ Potential _____ and ______ problems - Sensory integration deficits: - problems ________ - can be tested with _________________ |
- reduced cutaneous sensation and touch - impaired proprioception - potential vestibular and visual problems - sensory integration deficits - problems re-weighting incoming sensory input - can be tested with sensory organization test |
|
|
(8) secondary impairments or secondary musculoskeletal effects What are the structural and functional changes in joints and muscles? |
- Muscle Atrophy - changes in muscle fibre type - contractures - a permanent shortening of the muscle - puts limbsjoints into strange & tightpostures - if your muscles remain in a contract position for a long time. Your joints stay flexed. Could lead to arthritis or osteo
- degenerative joint disease |
|
|
(8) Visual Field Loss Macular Degeneration Glaucoma |
MD: Loss of central vison - spots that obscure part of visual field - harder to read, drive, etc Glaucoma: Loss of peripheral vision (tunnel vision) |
|
|
(8) What are symptoms of visual impairment |
- Visual Field Loss - Decreased visual acuity - reduced contrast sensitivity - reduced motion sensitivity |
|
|
(8) What are some rehab options with visual impairment? |
- Augmented vision systems - optical aids - orientation and mobility training - gaze training - exercise |
|
|
(8) Stroke is also commonly referred to as ______ - what does it result from, and what does it cause - what impairments are possible? - motor deficits are characterized by ...... |
referred to as Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) - results from restricted blood supply to the brain causing cell damage and impaired neurological function - impairments of motor, sensory, mental, perceptual, and language function are possible - by paralysis (hemiplegia) or weakness (hemiparesis) on the side of the body opposite of the lesion |
|
|
(8) Stroke - Impairments - what are the changes in muscle properties following a stroke? - What are some standing balance issues? |
changes: - decrease in fast-twitch fibres - motor unit recruitment deficits - decreased number of motor units Standing balance issues: characteristics of response to platform translations following stroke. - delayed postural reflexes and abnormal sequencing of muscle activity -ankle torque response are reduced on the paretic side following platform translations |
|
|
(8) Stroke Impairments What percent of falls occur during walking How many people with stroke are unable to walk? and for how long? How many can walk 3 months after? |
51% of falls occur during walking in stroke patients about half of people with stroke are unable to walk 1 week after stroke. However, 90% can walk independently 3 months after stroke |
|
|
(8) Stroke Rehabilitation Describe: Upper Limb Lower Limb |
Upper: - Functional arm and hand exercise - strengthening, dexterity (fine motor skills), range of motion - constraint-induced movement therapy - robot-assisted therapy - repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation Lower: - Exercise - Exoskeletons - body weight supported treadmill training |
|
|
(8) Constraint-induced movement therapy for stroke rehab (CIMT) - unilateral sensory or motor loss can lead to a ____________ - restraining the non-affected/non-paretic limb (ie upper extremity) forces __________ |
- lead to a 'learned nonuse' of the affected limb following a stroke
- ... the use of the affected/paretic limb |
|
|
(8) Explain an exercise of the CIMT and mCIMT |
CIMT: unaffected hand is secured to a splint, and then placed in a sling closed at both ends for 90% of the day while awake and is worn for 2-weeks EG: eating, using utensils, card games, writing, etc. mCIMT: repetitive, task-specific training of the paretic arm, including shaping procedures together with constraining the non-affected hand by a padded mitt, glove, or splint |
|
|
(8) Stroke and SCI Rehab - What do exoskeletons do? - Describe Body-Weight supported treadmill (BWST) training - who uses it - based on what info? - what does it improve, and what else can it be used in |
-Exo: provide partial body weight support to allow greater mobility for a patient
-BWST: -people w/ spinal cord injuries may still contain CPG's that can produce mvmnt - based on hip proprioception and load info - improves walking function in people w/incomplete SCI, and can be used in stroke rehab
|
|
|
(8) Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) - Damage to spinal cord that results in ____ - What is a complete SCI? - What is an incomplete SCI? - What is paraplegia? - What is quadriplegia/tetraplegia? |
-...results in loss of function
- complete: no function below the level of injury - incomplete: some function below primary level of injury. Maybe able to move one limb more than another, or feel parts of the body that can't be moved, or may have greater function on one side - PARAPLEGIA: loss of sensation and movement in the legs and in part or all of trunk - QUAD/TETRA: paralysis of all four limbs from neck down |
|
|
(8) In the experiment shown in lecture on a new approach to recover voluntary control of locomotion after SCI, rats received hemisections with tonic electrical stimulation, and trained to use treadmills. After training, rats were able to initiate full weight-bearing locomotion of hindlimbs. What would we expect to see when we take them off the treadmill? |
Rats trained on treadmill method did not transfer over ground; they could not voluntarily step over ground. Training protocol encouraged animals to actively initiate locomotion and engage cortical neurons, and thus promoted remodeling of descending pathways
|
|
|
(8)
-Describe Parkinson's Disease - what does dopamine do - when do symptoms appear |
- A Slow progressive hypokinetic movement disorder
- it occurs when certain neurons in the substantia nigra die, or become impaired - neurons produce dopamine, which allow smooth, coordinate movement - symptoms appear after ~80% of these neurons are damaged |
|
|
(8) If we compared two substantia nigra's, what would we see between the two when we look at a subject with Parkinson's disease, and one without? |
There are no black bodies in the parkinson's patient |
|
|
(8) What can parkinson's be characterized by?
(think of four) |
- resting tremor of limb - slowness of movement (bradykinesia) - rigidity of the limbs or trunk - poor balance (postural instability) |
|
|
(8) Tremor and Rigidity in PD - Resting Tremor is described as.... - Rigidity is described as.... - types? |
resting: often involves rhythmic, alternating opposition of the forefinger and thumb in a stereotypic 'pill-rolling' motion (trying to sift something) - person is not actively doing something rigidity: -increased resistance to passive movement - not velocity-dependent like spasticity - can affect all muscle groups Types: cogwheel (rachety) or lead pipe (smooth) |
|
|
(8) Describe bradykinesia in PD - problems in: (2) |
- slowness of movement - problems in initiating movement and executing the motor act |
|
|
(8) Postural Instability and Impaired Gait in PD - unstable when perturbed in the _______ direction - what is the turning "en bloc" definition - what is shuffling gait - what is decreased when walking - what is gait freezing. What is it characterized by. When does it happen? |
- backward - en bloc: Turning with a rigid neck & trunk, requiring multiple small steps to accomplish the turn (penguin) - shuffling: barely lift feet from ground, shuffling steps - decreased arm swing - gait freezing: freezing= akinesia, the inability to move. Characterized by an inability to move the feet (can't initiate walking). Happens when initiating gait, turning, approaching narrow or crowded spaces |
|
|
(8) Autism Spectrum Disorder - what is ASD? - what are some difficulties people face - how is sensory processing affected - what other deficits are frequently present, but not a core feature |
- ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication, and repetitive behaviour and restricted interests - many have difficulty initiating and maintaining eye contact, and understanding and responding to different emotions and other social cues -sensory process: low level sensory processing is normal or even enhanced in ASD. Can use proprioceptive info, but struggles with tasks that require high-level integration of visual input with other sensory input - Motor deficits are not core features of ASD, but are frequently present |
|
|
(8) ASD and Task-based sensorimotor deficits - Eye movements - Standing balance and Gait - Sensorimotor Communication |
- Eye Movements: greater saccade amplitude variability and slow or lack of saccade adaptation - Standing Balance and Gait: greater standing postural sway, and increased upper body variability and differences in spatiotemporal step metrics during gait -Sensorimotor: difficulty with imitation and gesturing, which correlates with ASD symptom severity |
|
|
(8) ASD and the BRAIN - what abnormalities are present in individuals with ASD? - what is the hallmark of ASD? |
- structural and functional abnormalities of the cerebellum (reduced activation during certain motor tasks, reduced cerebellar neurons and changes to cerebellar nuclei - altered connectivity in brain networks: functional network connectivity, or communication within and between distributed brain regions, is mediated by the synchronization of activity of diff neurons. This includes: - changes in the way parietal and frontal brain regions communicate - changes in the way the cerebellum communicates with sensorimotor regions and other brain areas |
|
|
(9) Define Motor Learning Define Performance |
ML: " A change in the capability of a person to perform a skill that must be inferred from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience
P: behavioural act of executing a skill at a specific time and in a specific situation |
|
|
(9) Describe the two sub-categories of motor-learning 1.Motor/Sensorimotor Adaptation - how does the sensorimotor system respond? Give an example - what is used to study this learning? 2. Skill Learning - what does it involve? give an example when this happens - what is used to study this learning? |
1. Sensorimotor system response to altered environmental (or body) conditions by reducing errors to regain a previous level of performance (EG recovery of function following neurological injury). Prism goggles, visuomotor rotations, and force fields are used to study this type of learning
2. Involves acquiring new muscle activation patterns to achieve a greater level of performance, such as learning to ride a bike. Sequence learning paradigms or actual skilled movements are used to study this type of learning |
|
|
(9) Describe the 5 characteristics of skill Learning that take place: - Improvement - Consistency - Stability - Persistence - Adaptability |
Improvement: Better performance over time
Consistency: Ability to reduce variability - performing under a consistent matter (trial after trial, day by day) Stability: Your performance of a skill becomes less susceptible to disruptions by external and internal factors Persistence: improvements in your performance are long lasting (EG: riding a bike, even though you've learned it years ago, you still know how to ride one) Adaptability: capacity to adapt your performance to different context/situations |
|
|
(9) Assessing learning: Performance Curves - it is the plot of the level achieved on DESCRIBE the 4 general types of curves (PICTURES) - what does the curve shape depend on? |
... on the performance measure for each time period - curve shape depends on individual and task, and assesses inprovement AND consistency of performance |
|
|
(9) Assessing Learning: Retention Tests - WHAT IS IT? What does it assess? |
- it is an assessment on the performance of a learned skill after a period of time following practice (EG: pre-post-retention test paradigm for clinical trials in rehab)
-assess the persistence of improved performance |
|
|
(9) Assessing Learning: Transfer Tests - what does this test involve? what does it assess? -define novel context and novel skill variation |
- It is a test that involves a novel situation so that the individual must adapt the skill to characteristics of the new situation. It assesses adaptability of learned skill and also the stability - Novel Skill/Context variation: if you know how to ski/snowboard, if you switch equipment there is little adaptation, but you know how to ski/snowboard. Another EG: you learn to swim in a pool, but then you can learn in the ocean |
|
|
(9) Practice performance may be misrepresent learning. How could it be misleading? Why does this occur? |
Misleading: It involves performance plateaus - this could occur because a new strat to perform a skill is being developed, or the period represents a time of fatigue, lack of attention or motivation -could also overestimate/underestimate learning |
|
|
(9) Stages Of Learning: Fitts and Posner Three-Stage Model What are the three stages involves to learn a motor skill? Exam Question: Describe this model in the context of hitting a baseball |
1. Cognitive Stage 2. Associate Stage 3. Autonomous Stage |
|
|
(9) Fitts and Posner Three-Stage Model: STAGE 1 - What does this stage focus on? -What do novice learners ask? - what's the degree of performance in this stage? Errors? |
Cognitive Stage - Focus is on cognitively oriented problems - Novice asks: what is the objective? How far should i move? Where should my arm be when my leg is in this position? -Performance is highly variable -Large # of large errors. Novice unsure how to improve |
|
|
(9) Fitts and Posner Three-Stage Model: STAGE 2 - what amount of time does it take to transition here? - What has the novice done to cause cognitive activity changes? - What is this stage marked by? What stage is it also referred to as? |
Associative Stage - No specified amount of time/practice b4 transition into this stage is possible - Cognitive Activity changes since the novice has learned to associate specific environmental cues with the movements required to achieve the goal - Stage is marked by fewer and smaller errors - REFINING STAGE: focus on improving (increase consistency, decrease variability) |
|
|
(9) Fitts and Posner Three-Stage Model: STAGE 3 - How long does it take to get to this stage - For someone in this stage, what would the skill be like for them? -what are important features at this stage |
Autonomous Stage - takes a large amount of practice (years) - The skill is almost automatic/habitual, and the individual does not consciously think about specific movement characteristics. You can multitask, TOO -quality/amount of instruction and practice are important features of this stage |
|
|
(9) What are the stages in Gentile's Two-Stage Model? EXAM QUESTION: Going through this model, what are the learner's goals in both stages, and what should the learner acquire in the second stage? |
- Initial Stage & Later Stage |
|
|
(9) Gentile's Two-Stage Model: What are the two important goals of the first stage? - what does the learner do through trial and error? |
1. Acquire a movement co-ordination pattern (mvmnt characteristisc must match the regulatory conds) 2. Learn to discriminate b/w regulatory and non-regulatory conditions -through trial and error, the learner performs mvmnts that may or may not match the requirements of the regulatory features |
|
|
(9) Gentile's Two-Stage Model: Describe the second stage. -What may it require? -what 3 general characteristics does the learner need? - unique feature is that.... |
-may require more than one stage - learner needs to acquire 3 characteristics: 1. develop the capability of adapting 2. increase consistency 3. perform the skill with economy of effort - unique: the learner's goal depend on the type of skill |
|
|
(9)Gentile's Two-Stage Model: What do closed skills require in the initial stage of practice ? -what point to you want to get to? |
Closed skills require fixation (predictable) of the basic movement pattern learned in the initial stage of practice. You want to get to a point where you are consistent from one trial to another |
|
|
(9) Gentile's Two-Stage Model: What do open skills require in the initial stage of practice? - what ability must the learner acquire? - what must the learner be aware of? |
Open skills require diversification (adapt) of the basic movement pattern developed in the initial stage of practice. - the learner must acquire the ability to adjust their movements based on the environmental context - the learner must quickly adapt to different situations: must change spatial & temporal patterns within a single trial & from trial to trial -it also means that a learner must be aware of the regulatory features of the task |
|
|
(9) Schmidt's Schema Theory of Learning After the motor program is selected and movement is made, what are the 4 types of info available to the learner?
|
1. Initial Body conditions (initial state) 2. parameters assigned (contextual; parameters applicable to program) 3. Augmented feedback about outcome of movement (info provided on top of sensory feedback. It is related to the outcome of the skill. Did I achieve the skill?) 4. Sensory consequences |
|
|
(9) Schmidt's Schema Theory of Learning Once info is stored long enough, what two schemas are developed? |
- Recall and Recognition Schema |
|
|
(9) Schema Theory of Learning Explain what Recall Schema is - Explain the relationship to initial conditions |
- The relationship between the parameters of the motor program, and the movement outcome. Basically the link b/w the outcome and specific parameters to motor program to get said outcome. |
|
|
(9)Schema Theory of Learning - Explain the relationship to initial conditions |
- more practice with different parameters w/ different outcomes = stronger relationships - more you become aware of which parameter to use when you want a certain outcome -based on initial condition slope of relationship will be different b/c same parameters with different conditions will give you different outcomes |
|
|
(9) Schema Theory of Learning What is recognition schema? |
Relationship between theinitial conditions, themovement outcomes, and sensory consequences - can use expected sensory consequences to aid learning, as it helps identify what went wrong (or if the movement will work out properly) |
|
|
(9) Performer and PerformanceChanges Across Learning Stages: Describe Change in Rate of Improvement. - What is the power law of practice? |
A learner usually experiences a large amount of improvement (or large, rapid reduction in error) early in practice, and then the rate of improvement decreases. This is known as the power law of practice. It is also reminiscent of the negatively accelerated pattern of performance |
|
|
(9) Attention and Rate of Learning/Adaptation during Split-belt Locomotion exercise EXPLAIN: 1. Split Belt Locomotion 2. Control Group 3. Conscious Correction Group 4. Distraction Group |
1. Two belts moving at different speeds 2. No instruction 3. On-line visual feedback and instructions (only goal of task) 4. watched TV; asked to count and answer questions about program |
|
|
(9) Performer and PerformanceChanges Across Learning Stages Describe changes in movement coordination - what does the learner have to solve - whats this an important goal of? - what does it involve? |
- THE LEARNER (or their nervous system) must solve the degrees of freedom problem - important goal of Gentile's initial stage of learning - involves determining the appropriate muscle activation pattern, limb configurations, trajectories, and how to control joints in order to perform the skill
|
|
|
(9) How does CNS solve DOF problem toproduce coordinated movements? Think of the beginner and the skilled (possibly exam) |
|
|
|
(9) Performer and Performance Changes Across Learning Stages Change in Muscles Used to Perform Skill - describe how people use their muscles in practice - define co-contract and its purpose -what happens as a person practices? |
- people use their muscles inappropriately early in practice - more muscles are often used and the timing of activation is not efficient - they may also co-contract (activate both agonists & antagonist muscles around a joint) to help stabilize a limb - ... they learn to reorganize the pattern of muscle activity to solve the DOF problem. |
|
|
(9) Performer and Performance Changes Across Learning Stages Change in Energy Cost - what does it mean by this idea of the economy of movement? give an example |
- this refers to minimizing the energy cost of performing a skill people walk atpreferred stride frequencyto minimize metabolic cost |
|
|
(9) Performer and Performance Changes Across Learning Stages Change in Visual SelectiveAttention - what do beginners typically do? - what happens as practice continues? - what ability is increased? |
- beginners typically fixate on too many things, or not at the appropriate features on the environment necessary to perform the skill (visual attention is directed to inappropriate environmental cues) -as practice continues, a person attends to appropriate sources of information in an appropriate time frame - learning leads to an increased ability to direct vision to the REGULATORY features of the environment |
|
|
(9) Performer and Performance Changes Across Learning Stages Change in Conscious Attention Demands - what do learner do? - what happens? - what's an example? |
- Early in practice the learner consciously thinks about almost every part of the movement - eventually conscious attention decreases EG: Manual Transmission Car |
|
|
(9) Performer and Performance Changes Across Learning Stages Changes in Error Detection: - what is it? - what involves this ability? |
The capability to detect and correct one's own performance errors increases - part of becoming skilled at a task involves this ability |
|
|
(9) Performer and Performance Changes Across Learning Stages Changes in Brain Activity: - What is brain plasticity - what does the cerebellum show? |
- Brain plasticity: motor learning and recovery of function - the cerebellum shows progressive increase in activity and remains active for longer durations than posterior parietal cortex (PPC) |
|
|
(9) Transfer of Learning 1. What is transfer of learning? 2. Why is this concept important 3. Several factors may influence transfer of learning |
1. influence of past learning of a motor skill on the performance of that particular skill in a new context or with learning a new skill on performing a skill in a new context or on learning a new skill 2. Why: skills need to be performed in different environments. This is critical for rehab, and assessing the effectiveness of practice conditions (transfer test performance might provide the best assessment) 3. Sequencing skills to be learned (learners should acquire basic skills before learning more complex skills). There are also instructional methods (teach part of skill before practicing entire skill). Fear, arousal, and/or anxiety levels (practice conditions are not necessarily the same as when the skill is performed in competition |
|
|
(9) Positive Transfer of Learning: What is it? Why does it occur? |
What: previous experience facilitates performance Why: due to the degree of similarity between the component parts or characteristics of two skills or the context in which two skills are performed - component parts = an observable movement part or task-specific coordination dynamics (EG: phase relationship) - can also be due to the similarity in the cognitive processing characteristics of the two skills or performance scenarios, including the similarity b/w practice and test situation |
|
|
(9) Negative Transfer of learning When does it occur? Why does it occur? |
When: occurs when a learned motor skill interferes with performance of a new motor skill EG: Driving manual in England vs USA, or forehand in tennis vs Badminton forehand Why: Difficulty in altering a preferred relationship b/w sensory input and the necessary motor output for the skill that has been developed in a specific environmental context |
|
|
(9) Bilateral Transfer - what is it - why is it important for stroke victims - why does it occur |
transfer of learning that occurs b/w two limbs - importance in rehab or upper extremity function following stroke -occurs because brain learns to perform skill in a non-limb specific way - apply knowledge acquire with practice of one limb to the other limb |
|
|
(9) Demonstration: - What does observing skilled demonstration require - what is required of novices observing other novices |
- demonstrator should perform skill correctly - requires beginner to problem solve rather than imitate skilled demonstrator, and they can see what is done wrong |
|
|
(9) What is the neural basis for observational learning? |
Mirror neurons in the F5 are of premotor cortex discharge during active movements when observing other monkeys or humans doing the same movement |
|
|
(9) What may develope as a result of sensorimotor experiences when talking about demonstrations? |
- no relationship b/w an observed action and its internal representation - as they experiment w/ different movements, they start to associate specific actions with their visual representation - learn to generalize these to the actions of others |
|
|
(9) Looking at timing and frequency of demonstration, what should we to help people practice |
- demonstrate a skill before the person begins practicing - continue demonstrating during practice as frequently as necessary |
|
|
(9) Verbal instruction and cues: - what info should be provided - what do verbal instructions do? |
- the amount of info included in verbal instructions should consider the learner's stage and attention capacity - verbal instructions can direct a learner's attention to certain aspects of the motor skill, thus influencing how they practice |
|
|
(9) How does reward and punishment play an important role in learning (2) - what is reinforcement learning: |
-can be implicit, -can be related to monetary gain or less - reinforcement learning: based on selection of actions that an individual predicts will result in greater reward - people can freely explore different strats to arrive at a solution using intrinsic or extrinsic reward feedback - person must exploit what they already know to get a reward, as well as explore to improve future action selections |
|
|
(9) with reward and punishment, what would we see if we made it a monetary reward? Is it loss or gain that increases adaptation |
Punishment results in faster adaptation, but reward results in greater memory retention |
|
|
(9) Practice Variability - WHAT DOES THIS RELATE TO? -what does variable practice result in? - how does Gentile's model, and daynamic pattern views, emphasize variability? |
a person practicing different variations of movements and experiencing a variety of context characteristics when learning a motor skill -variable practice appears to result in greater retention and transfer test performance when compared to constant practice -theories of motor skill learning and control emphasize variability - gentile's learning stages model: learner needs to practice to experience variations of regulatory and non-regulatory characteristics - dynamic pattern views: learner needs to explore the perceptual motor workspace and to discover optimal solutions to the DOF problem |
|
|
(9) Contextual Interference What does this refer to? What is the contextual interference effect? - high/low contextual interference - what is serial practice |
- refers to the interference that results when performing multiple different skills or variations of the same skill within a practice session -effect: refers to the learning benefit after practicing multiple skills with a high contextual interference schedule rather than practicing the motor skills with a low contextual interference schedule - High: random practice - serial practice: in b/w high and low interference - Low: Blocked practice |
|
|
(9) Blocked vs random practice - which one gets a better accuracy score over time with badminton serves? |
Random practice |
|
|
(9) Why might contextual interference be beneficial? - random practice causes the learner to... - high contextual interference conditions requires the learner to... |
- random practice causes the learner to use more strats to learn and enhance the memory representation of the skill - high contextual interference conditions require the learner to problem solve to a greater extent, and to adjust their motor plan for each skill variation |
|
|
(9) Practice Specificity - what does it propose? - three broad characteristics: 1. Source of Sensory/perceptual info 2. Performance Context Characteristics 3. Cognitive Processing Characteristics |
-proposes that practice situations in which characteristics are the most similar to those of the transfer test will lead to better performance on it 1. if vision is available during practice, then it is essential in test conditions 2. similar enviro context b/w practice and test conditions leads to better performance 3. similar problem solving aspects lead to better transfer to test conditions |
|
|
(9) Practice Specificity VersusPractice Variability -what's better? talk about amount of transfer of learning |
- amount of transfer of learning is a function of the degree of similarity b/w practice and test characteristics (better learning with more similarity) - however, variability practice better for learning |
|
|
(9) Practice Specificity VersusPractice Variability - What does practice specificity relate to - What does practice variability relate to |
PSpecific: relates primarily to certain characteristics of the practice and test context (sensory/perceptual, environmental, cognitive) PVari: relates specifically to the movement characteristics of the skill that is learned |
|
|
(9) Whole/Part Practice What does Complexity refer to? - What is not the same as? - What is a more complex skill |
- refers to the # of component parts/movements in a motor skill - it is not the same as difficulty - more complex skills have more component parts, and require greater attention and info processing demands |
|
|
(9) Whole/Part Practice What does organization refer to? what's the difference b/w high and low level of organization? |
- refers to the relationship b/w the component parts/movements of a motor skills -high: when the spatial and temporal aspects of a motor skill's component parts are important (one movement flows from one to another) -Low: some dance routines |
|
|
(9) What is the difference between whole and part practice? - talk about the skill, and an example |
Whole: Skill is low in complexity, and high in organization (EG Dart throwing, golf putting) Part: Skill is higher in complexity, and lower in organization (shiftings gears on a car) |
|
|
(9) Explain these Part Practice Approaches 1. Fractionization 2. Segmentation 3. Attention Focus 4. Simplification |
1.related to asymmetric coordination skills; involves practicing the arms or legs separately before practicing with them together 2. involves practicing the initial component part of a skill by itself, then together with the next part. Known as the progressive part method 3. a practice strategy to direct attention to a specific component part of the motor skill while practicing the entire skill 4. involves reducing the difficulty of specific component parts of a motor skill |
|
|
(9) In part-practice approaches, what does simplification do? |
1. reduces task difficulty 2. reduces object difficulty 3. reduces attention demands 4. reduces speed of mvmnt 5. add auditory cues 6. sequencing skill progression 7. simulators and VR |
|
|
(9) Consolidation: procedural long term memory - are new memories fragile or sturdy - what kind of memory is consolidated over time - what can interference be exemplified by |
- new memories are fragile - motor memory is consolidated over time - If you learn a particular finger tap sequence, and then shortly after learn a different sequence, the skill of the first sequence is disrupted - Original sequence cannot consolidate properly when secondary skill is interfering with the learning. You need to give yourself time to learn something |
|
|
(9) What is procedural memory? - when does memory undergo consolidation - what happens when you learn a new sequence right after another? |
- over a period of several hours, memory undergoes consolidation - If you learn a newsequence (or skill)several hours after thefirst sequence (or skill),the first sequence is nolonger disrupted |
|
|
(9) What is Anterograde? What is Retrograde? What is Washout |
Antero: If you are learning mapping A, then learn mapping B over time, eventually you're retested on your original mapping, and mapping A could interfere/mask your second mapping Retro: backwards: you have interference learning mapping B, if it interferes with RECALL of mapping A. washout: doesnt interfere, or at least reduces anterograde |
|
|
(9) CONTEXT CUES: - what do they allow? - what does research say about mapping to colours? |
- CC allow switching of specific internal models (selecting the appropriate inverse model to execute a movement) -learning a new mapping associated with a colour cue can facilitate the learning process |
|
|
(9) What is the difference between explicit and implicit learning |
IMPLICIT: unconscious learning results from reducing sensory prediction error through a state-estimation/internal model process EXPLICIT: strategy-based aiming results from performance error and also plays a role in the overall sensorimotor adaptation |
|
|
(9 notes) Augmented Feedback - what are the aspects of 1. Task-intrinsic feedback (5) 2. Augmented feedback ( task-extrinsic)(2) |
Task-intrinsic feedback: - visual - tactile - proprioceptive - vestibular - auditor Augmented feedback: - knowledge of results (KR) - knowledge of performance (KP) |
|
|
(9 notes) Knowledge of Results - define it |
"info about the outcome of performing a skill or about achieving the goal of the performance"
This could refer to the result or could be 'yes' or 'no' regarding whether goal was achieved |
|
|
(9 notes) Knowledge of Performance - define it |
" info about the movement characteristics that led to the performance outcome "
can be through verbal or non-verbal means (replay) |
|
|
(9 notes) How does KP and KR differ? - what would KP and KR be in the example of a physical therapist giving knowledge in regards to walking performance |
They differ in which aspect of performance the info refers to.
-Difference b/w mvmnt and skill. EG: a therapist could give KR: "you walked 5 meters more today than yesterday" KP being: "you should bend at your knees more as you walk" |
|
|
(9 notes) How is KR beneficial (when, and how) (there are 4) |
1. to confirm own assessments of task-intrinsic feedback
2. when the learner can't determine the outcome of performing skill (when the result is not visible to the learner) 3. to motivate 4. when practitioners and coaches what learners to problem solve by making trial and error |
|
|
(9 notes) What is the role of augmented feedback? -what does it allow the learner to determine -what else does it motivate -when is it not beneficial? |
- it is to facilitate success of the motor skill.
-It allows the learner to determine if they are appropriately performing the skill -it also motivates the learner to continue to try to reach their goal -it is not beneficial when a detectable external reference related to an outcome is available, or when used too often such that learners tend to depend on it |
|
|
(9 notes) How is KP beneficial? (when...) (think of 4) |
1. when motor skills require specific movement characteristics (gym stunts, figure skating jumps)
2. highly coordinated movement component of a skill must be improved or corrected 3. the goal of the action is kinematic, kinetic or specific muscle activity not readily observable 4. when KR is redundant with task-intrinsic feedback (EG TI-feedback is when vision is used to determine that you missed a target, but it doesnt inform the learner how to correct) |
|
|
(9 notes) There was a study done to see if verbal encouragement or verbal KP was better in the case of performing a 1-hand basketball shot with a non-dominant hand. What do you think is better between the two verbal info? |
Verbal KP gave info regarding errors in stance and limb movement Verbal Encouragement was like "way to go, good shot, keep practicing". -large change in beginning and end of encouragement, but overall change was better in verbal KP. |
|
|
(9 notes) When is augmented feedback essential? (three things) |
1. When sensory feedback is not available (no vision)
2. when injury or disease makes available sensory feedback less reliable 3. when person can't use sensory feedback appropriately since they lack experience (makes it dififcult for them to extract appropriate info from the feedback signals |
|
|
(9 notes) What should the content of augment feedback relate to - what is providing error info effective for? - what is better for early stages of learning? qualitative or quantitative? - |
providing error info is more effective for facilitating skill learning than providing info on the correct aspect of performance.
It also suggests that qualitative info may be better to provide in the early stages of learning compared to quantitative info. |
|
|
(9notes) Types of KP: - What are the types of Verbal KP (2) - Describe Video Recordings -Describe Movement kinematics -Describe Biofeedback |
Verbal KP:
-descriptive KP = describes the error the performer has made - prescriptive KP = identifies the error and tells the learner what to do to correct it. This is also better for beginners Video Recordings - improve performance when combined with verbal KP versus verbal KP alone or no KP Movement Kinematics: - using computer software to display kinematic details of motor skill - limited research does show benefit -Biofeedback -augmented form of task-intrinsic feedback related to physiological processes. Record physiological signal and display it to learner (muscle activity eg) |
|
|
(9notes) Explain what concurrent augmented feedback is. -when it is effective - how is it possibly negative |
- Refers to feedback provided while a person is performing a skill. It is most effective when task-intrinsic feedback is difficult to use.
- negative learning effect with this timing. Learner may substitute info from augmented feedback for the task-intrinsic feedback they should be using; the augmented feedback is learned and not the motor skill |
|
|
(9notes) Explain what terminal augmented feedback refers to - Explain the KR-delay and post -KR interval - does this affect motor skill? |
- feedback provided after the motor skill is completed. Effective for almost any motor skill.
- KR DELAY interval: the time interval b/w the completion of a movement and the presentation of augmented feedback - Post-KR interval: the time interval between the presentation of augmented feedback and beginning of the next trial - this doesnt appear to influence motor skill learning that much |
|
|
(9notes) Should Aug. Feed. be given 100% of practice trials? - What happens to people who receive KR after every trial? - What group KR does better at retention here: 25% 75% 50% |
- no, not 100% of practice trials.
- people who received KR after every trial performed the (delayed) retention test to almost the same extent as the 1st day of practice. the 50% KR group did better at retention. |
|
|
(9notes ) What are the ways to reduce the frequency of augment feedback? |
Performance Based Bandwidths
Self selected Frequency Summary Augmented Feedback |
|
|
(9notes) Describe: 1.Performance Based Bandwidths (hockey net) 2. Self selected Frequency 3.Summary Augmented Feedback |
1. -feedback is provided when the error is outside a particular value or goal (so feedback is dependent on error size) - the bandwidth technique is more effective than no feedback and error info provided every trial -EG: when shooting on a hockey net, you could give error info only if the puck misses the net by more than 1m 2. give feedback only when learner asks for it 3. give feedback after a certain total number of trials |
|
|
(9) Distribution of Practice: describe these two broad practice schedules: Massed Practice: Distributed Practice: which one is better? |
Massed: fewer practice sessions - but more practice within session
Distributed: same amount of practice - but spread across days distributed is better. Instead of doing 240 practice trials in one day, you do 60 trials over 4 days. |
|
|
(9) What is overlearning |
continuing to practice beyond what is needed to achieve the goal of the motor skill.
"More the better" is not always appropriate of motor skills There is a point at which there is no longer benefit derived from continuing to practice, especially for skills easy to learn. |
