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330 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are peptide hormones composed of? |
Amino acids |
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What are the different categories of hormones? |
peptides, steroids, amino acid derivatives, and eicosanoids |
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Which hormone has intracellular receptors? |
cortisol |
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What does the pancreas produce and secrete |
digestive enzymes |
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Which organ of the female reproductive system is functionally part of the endocrine system? |
ovary |
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Which hormone, secreted by the pituitary gland, causes the thyroid hormone to release thyroid hormone? |
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) |
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The release of ACTH from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland causes the: |
adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids |
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Which hormone affects smooth muscle and therefore has an effect on the ductus deferens and uterus? |
Oxytocin |
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What happens when blood glucose levels are high? |
the pancreas releases insulin |
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How does a liver cell respond to insulin? |
By taking in glucose and converting it to glycogen |
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What cells in the body respond to glucagon by breaking down glycogen and releasing glucose? |
liver cells |
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What happens when blood glucose levels are low? |
The pancreas releases glucagon, which eventually causes blood glucose levels to increase |
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Which group of hormones causes an anti-inflammatory action? |
glucocorticoids |
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What do endocrine cells do? |
Release their secretions directly into body fluids |
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Hormones are: |
chemical messengers that are released in one tissue and transported in the bloodstream to alter the activities of specific cells in other tissues |
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lipid-soluble hormones usually bind to what kind of receptors? |
intranuclear |
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Is para-thyroid hormone derived from an amino acid? |
no |
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An enzyme that performs phosphorylation is |
a kinase |
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An activated G protein can trigger |
-decreased cAMP levels |
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This intracellular protein works in combination with calcium ions, which are messengers |
calmodulin |
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The hypothalamus is both a neural and ______ organ |
endocrine |
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A simple endocrine reflex involves this many hormones |
just one |
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steroid hormones are not produced in the: |
suprarenal medulla |
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Which types of hormones use extracellular membrane receptors? |
catacholamines, peptide hormones, and eicosanoids |
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How do steroid hormones work? |
They bind to receptors in the nucleus of their target cells |
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What happens when a catecholamine or peptide hormone binds to receptors on the surface of the cell? |
The second messenger appears in the cytoplasm |
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What's the link between a first and second messenger in a cell that responds to peptide hormones? |
a G protein |
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What happens when adenyl cyclase is activated? |
ATP is consumed & cAMP is formed |
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Do all target cells have hormone receptors? |
yes |
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What hormone exerts a strong effect on adrenal steroid production? |
ACTH |
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What hormone is released by the neurohypophysis |
anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) |
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What is the primary function of ADH? |
Tho decrease the amount of water lost at the kidneys |
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How does the hypothalamus control secretion by the adenohypophysis? |
By secreting releasing and inhibiting factors into a tiny portal system |
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What do secretory cells of the adenohypophysis release? |
ACTH, TSH, FSH, GH |
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Hypophyseal portal system: |
-has two capillary plexuses connected by short veins |
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Excess secretion of growth hormone during development causes: |
gigantism |
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Which organs contain target cells for oxytocin? |
mammary glands, ductus deferens, prostate, uterus |
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ACTH |
Pituitary hormone that controls the release of glucocorticoids from the suprarenal cortex |
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FSH |
The pituitary hormone that promotes egg development in ovaries & sperm development in testes |
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LH |
The pituitary hormone that promotes ovarian secretion of progesterone and testicular secretion of testosterone |
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Prolactin |
pituitary hormone that stimulates milk production by the mammary glands |
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somatotropin |
the pituitary hormone that stimulates cell growth and replication by accelerating protein synthesis |
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Iodine is necessary to make what hormone? |
thyroid hormone |
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What do the C cells of the thyroid gland produce? |
calcitonin |
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Excessive parathyroid hormone may result in |
osteopenia, elevated blood calcium, or increased loss of bone minerals |
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What does the zona reticularis of the suprarenal cortex produce? |
androgens |
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What does the zona fasciculata of the suprarenal cortex produce? |
glucocorticoids |
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What does the zona glomerulosa of the suprarenal cortex produce? |
mineralocorticoids |
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What does the suprarenal medulla produce? |
catecholamines |
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Cortisol promotes what in the liver? |
gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose/glycogen from non-carbohydrate sources) |
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What does the suprarenal medulla produce? |
epinephrine and norepinephrine |
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Damage to cells of the zona fasciculata would result in: |
decreased ability to convert amino acids to glucose |
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What gland secretes melatonin? |
pineal gland |
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Pinealocytes produce: |
melatonin |
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Alpha cells are to ______ as beta cells are to _____ |
glucagon; insulin |
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What are the primary targets of insulin? |
skeletal muscle fibers, cardiac cells, liver cells, and adipocytes |
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What do the delta cells of the pancreatic islets produce? |
somatostatin |
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What does the exocrine portion of the pancreas produce? |
digestive enzymes |
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What directly regulates the secretion of insulin? |
blood-glucose concentration |
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Does the kidney secrete angiotensin? |
nope |
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What enzyme is responsible for the activation of angiotensin? |
renin |
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How is angiotensin I converted to angiotensin II? |
by converting enzymes in the lungs |
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What do the interstitial cells of the testes produce? |
testosterone |
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What does the corpus luteum secrete? |
progesterone |
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What do the kidneys secrete? |
erythropoietin, renin, calcitriol, and hormones to regulate sodium ion concentration |
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Where is cholecalciferol synthesized? |
within the epidermis of the integumentary system (cholecalciferol is vitamin d) |
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What hormone dominates during the alarm phase of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)? |
epinephrine |
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The exhaustion phase of the General adaptation syndrome (GAS) is characterized by |
failure of electrolyte balance |
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What does the thyroid gland secrete? |
calcitonin |
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What happens after a steroid hormone binds to its receptor to form an active complex? |
gene transcription is initated |
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Which hormones are water soluble and therefore bind to extracellular receptors? |
insulin and epinephrine |
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Increased activity of phosphodiesterase in a target cell would decrease its level of ______ |
cAMP |
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Changes in blood osmotic pressure would most affect the secretion of __________ |
ADH |
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Neurons of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus manufacture _______ |
ADH & oxytocin |
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What pituitary hormone causes the kidney to reduce water loss? |
ADH |
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Thyroglobulin is found where? |
thyroid follicles |
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What hormone can lower blood levels of calcium ion? |
calcitonin |
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Where does the chemical reaction between thyroglobulin and iodine take place? |
the lumen of the thyroid follicle |
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What's regulated by the parathyroid gland? |
blood calcium concentration |
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What hormone helps to regulate the sodium ion content of the body? |
aldosterone |
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An excess of glucocorticoids results in |
Cushing's Disease |
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What would activate secretion of a pancreatic hormone? |
a fall in the blood glucose concentration |
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Is cortisol produced by the gonads? |
nope |
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If stress lasts longer than a few hours, an individual will enter the _________ phase of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) |
resistance |
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What is the agranular leukocyte that is capable of phagocytosis?
|
monocyte |
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What WBC type most rapidly increases in number after a bacterial infection? |
neutrophils |
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What does the common pathway in coagulation end with? |
conversion of soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin |
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Where are most of the protein factors that are required for clotting synthesized? |
the liver |
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The chief difference between plasma and interstitial fluid involves the |
concentration of proteins |
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The most abundant solute in plasma is |
protein |
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Why can't serum coagulate? |
because the fibrinogen has been removed |
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Which plasma protein transports fatty acids and some hormones? |
albumin |
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Which organ secretes the most plasma proteins? |
liver |
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Plasma proteins that are essential in body defense are called: |
immunoglobulins |
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What is a plasma protein that is essential for blood coagulation? |
fibrinogen |
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RBC production is regulated by what hormone? |
erythropoietin |
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An obstruction in blood flow to the kidneys would ultimately result in what? |
increased erythropoiesis |
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What does each heme ring in hemoglobin enclose? |
an atom of iron |
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What is hemoglobin's function? |
to carry dissolved blood gases |
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Where do granulocytes form? |
red bone marrow |
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What kind of white blood cells are most numerous in peripheral circulation? |
neutrophils |
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What kind of WBC releases histamine and heparin at the site of an injury? |
basophils |
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What are monocytes? |
large, phagocytic WBCs that spend most of their time outside the blood as fixed and free phagocytic cells |
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What kind of WBCs are increased in allergic individuals? |
eosinophils |
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~tru factz about basophils~ |
-granules contain histamine |
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What do eosinophils function in? |
destroying antibody-labeled antigens |
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What blood cells are involved in specific immunity? |
lymphocytes |
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Non-specific immunity is a function of which blood cells? |
neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes |
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What is the function of platelets? |
to assist in a process called hemostasis |
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What are platelets? |
cytoplasmic fragments of large cells |
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What happens during fibrinolysis? |
clots slowly dissolve |
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What is the enzyme that dissolves fibrin called? |
plasmin |
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What is the complex process that leads to the formation of fibrin from fibrinogen called? |
coagulation |
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What is the extrinsic pathway of coagulation initiated by? |
The release of tissue factor (Factor III) by damaged endothelium |
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What is the intrinsic pathway of coagulation activated by? |
activation of Factor XII exposed to collagen |
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What does the common pathway of coagulation start with? |
conversion of Factor X to prothrombinase |
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What is a moving blood clot called? |
an embolus |
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What is the most abundant component of plasma? |
water |
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What is the P wave of the electrocardiogram closely followed by? |
contraction of both atria |
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What is the volume of blood remaining in the ventricle as diastole begins called? |
end-systolic volume |
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What can you calculate if you know both the heart rate and stroke volume?
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cardiac output |
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What is the epicardium also known as? |
the visceral pericardium |
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What is the difference between cardiac and skeletal muscle? |
cardiac muscle can't be tetanized |
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Blood returning to the heart from the pulmonary circuit first enters the ____________ |
left atrium |
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What do the papillary muscles do? |
prevent the AV valves from reversing into the atria |
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Which valve prevents backward flow of blood into the left ventricle? |
aortic valve |
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After blood flows into the vena cava, where will it go? |
the right atrium |
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What causes cardiac tamponade? |
excess fluid in the pericardial cavity |
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What do intercalated disks transfer from cell to cell? |
electrical signals, ionic currents, the force of contraction, and action potentials |
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Blood returning to the heart from the systemic circuit first enters the __________ |
right atrium |
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The cusps of atrioventricular valves attach directly to the _____________ |
chordae tendinae |
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Where does the right ventricle pump blood to? |
right and left lungs |
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Where does the left ventricle pump blood to? |
aorta |
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What is coronary thrombosis? |
when a blood clot forms on a ruptured plaque in a coronary artery |
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When is the first heart sound heard? |
when AV valves close |
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where do the pulmonary arteries carry blood to? |
lungs |
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Where do pulmonary veins carry blood to? |
heart |
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Where is the foramen ovale in the fetal heart located? |
interatrial septum |
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What is heart rate controlled by? |
both the right vagus and sympathetic nerves |
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The rapid depolarization phase in the ventricular action potential appears in the electrocardiogram as the: |
QRS complex |
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What phase of the electrocardiogram does the plateau phase of the ventricular action potential correspond with? |
ST interval |
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Calcium ions are entering the cardiac muscle cell during what phase of the cardiac action potential? |
Plateau phase |
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Where does the conducting system in the heart begin? |
SA node |
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What delivers blood to the myocardium? |
the coronary arteries |
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What is blood supplied to the left atrium by? |
left coronary artery |
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What is the function of an atrium? |
to collect blood, then pump it to the ventricle |
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Where is the normal pacemaker of the heart located? |
the sinoatrial node |
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What happens if the pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial (SA) node become more permeable to potassium ions? |
heart rate will decrease and cells will hyperpolarize |
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The ventricles will beat more slowly if: |
the connection between the SA and AV nodes becomes blocked |
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What represents the depolarization of the ventricles on an electrocardiogram? |
QRS complex |
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Is diastole the relaxed state of the ventricle, or the contracted state of the ventricle? |
relaxed state |
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The one-way nature of the left AV valve prevents blood flow from |
the left ventricle to the left atrium |
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When does the majority of ventricular filling occur? |
While the ventricles and atria are in ventricular and atrial diastole |
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When does left ventricular filling occur? |
while the AV valve is open |
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Are AV valves closed or open during ventricular systole? |
closed |
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What will not increase heart rate? |
increased parasympathetic stimulation of the SA node |
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What will not increase cardiac output? |
increased afterload |
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If there's an increase in the rate of action potentials from baroreceptors, it will trigger a reflex to |
decrease both heart rate and pressure |
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What WILL increase heart rate? |
-increased sympathetic stimulation of SA node |
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What does stroke volume depend on? |
-venous return of blood to the heart |
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What is heart rate controlled by? |
neurons of the cardiovascular center, located in the medulla oblongata |
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What would elevated capillary hydrostatic pressure do? |
force more fluid across the endothelium |
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What does the hepatic portal vein do? |
carries nutrient-rich blood into the liver |
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What are capillaries with a complete lining called? |
continuous capillaries |
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____________ are responsible for channeling blood toward the heart |
venous valves |
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Where would you find fenestrated capillaries? |
the pituitary gland |
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atherosclerosis |
buildup of plaque in the arteries |
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Fenestrated capillaries |
capillaries with a perforated lining |
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An arteriole is also called a ___________ vessel |
resistance |
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What holds the largest percentage of the blood supply? |
veins |
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The main control of ________________ occurs in the arteriole |
peripheral resistance |
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When might edema occur? |
-when capillary hydrostatic pressure is elevated |
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Systolic pressure --- diastolic pressure = |
pulse pressure |
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Vascular resistance opposes _____________________________________ |
the flow of blood back to the heart |
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Are immunoglobulins specific or non-specific? |
non-specific |
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If the thymus ceased production of thymosins, T cells would ____________ |
decrease |
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T/F: vaccinations are naturally acquired active immunity
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False; they're artificially acquired active |
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Inflammation produces: |
-redness -swelling -heat -pain |
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This immunoglobulin sensitizes cells to allergens |
IgE |
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The white pulp (lymphoid tissue) of the spleen contains many _______________ |
lymphocytes |
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T/F: lymphocytes are phagocytic |
False |
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What cells are responsible for humoral immunity? |
B cells |
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Where are the stem cells that will form B or NK cells found? |
bone marrow |
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Plasma cells are responsible for: |
the production of circulating immunoglobulins |
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What do innate defenses include? |
-phagocytic cells -physical barriers -interferons -inflammation |
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What are physical barriers? |
-epithelia -sebaceous glands -mucus -epidermal layers |
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Mast cells releasing histamine and heparin mean that |
an inflammatory response has been triggered |
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Neutrophils and eosinophils are |
microphages |
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A high level of pyrogens in the blood indicates |
a fever |
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When does the classic pathway of complement activation begin? |
When the protein C1 binds to an antibody that's attached to an antigen |
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What is immunity that is genetically determined and present at birth called? |
innate immunity |
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How do cytotoxic T cells attack target cells? |
by secreting a cytokine that triggers apoptosis (cell death) |
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Phagocytes are the first line of cellular defense against ______ |
pathogens |
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Naturally acquired active immunity is immunity that results from |
exposure to an antigen in the environment |
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Failure of tolerance immunity results in |
autoimmune illness |
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Helper T cells are killed by |
the AIDS virus |
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cytotoxic T lymphocytes |
specifically identify and directly kill disease cells |
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What do suppressor T cells do? |
inhibit T and B cell activities |
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A cytotoxic T cell is stimulated by |
an antigen being bound to a Class II MHC protein |
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How can T and B cells be activated? |
exposure to a specific antigen at a specific site in a plasma membrane |
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What kind of cells are Class II MHC proteins present in? |
the plasma membrane of antigen-presenting cells and lymphocytes |
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Helper T cells activate |
B cells |
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Which is higher during a primary immune response: IgM or IgG? |
IgM titer is initially higher |
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Delayed hypersensitivity is |
a type of allergy |
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The only antibodies that cross the placenta |
IgG |
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After blood becomes oxygenated, what does it do? |
it returns to the heart before being pumped to body cells |
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Boyle's Law |
gas pressure is inversely proportional to volume |
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Where are the respiratory centers in the brain located? |
both the medulla oblongata and the pons |
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What will decrease the effectiveness of gas exchange across the respiratory membrane? |
increased thickness of the respiratory membrane |
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Why is inhaling through the nostrils preferred over the mouth? |
because it allows better conditioning of the inhaled air |
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Where are the vocal folds located? |
larynx |
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Where are the actual sites of gas exchange within lungs |
alveoli |
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The membrane of the gas exchange surfaces is made from |
simple squamous epithelium |
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What is a pulmonary embolism? |
blockage of pulmonary blood flow by a clot |
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Tidal volume |
the amount of air that moves into the respiratory system during a single respiratory cycle |
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Inspiratory reserve volume |
the amount of air that you can inhale above the resting tidal volume |
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What does increasing the alveolar ventilation rate do? |
decrease the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli |
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Henry's Law |
The volume of gas that will dissolve in a solvent is proportional to the solubility of the gas and the gas pressureD |
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Dalton's Law |
in a mixture of gases (like air), the total pressure = the sum of the individual partial pressures of gases in the mixture |
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Where is >70% of CO2 carried in the blood? |
In the plasma as dissolved CO2 or HCO3 |
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How is most oxygen transported in the blood stream? |
bound to hemoglobin |
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Why does the chloride shift occur? |
to transport bicarbonate ions into the blood plasma |
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Carbonic acid is created when |
carbon dioxide and water form |
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Bicarbonate ions |
How most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is transported |
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decreased pH = _________ hemoglobin |
increased |
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Carbonic Anhydrase |
-can increase OR decrease the # of bicarbonate ions in plasma |
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elevated PCO2 |
hypercapnia |
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What do the apneustic centers of the pons do |
provide stimulation to the inspiratory ccenter |
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What do the pneumotaxic centerof the pons do |
modify rate and depth of breathing |
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What protects the lungs from damage due to overinflation? |
the hering-breuer reflex |
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Where is the cardiac sphincter? |
between the esophagus and stomach |
|
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Where is the transverse colon located? |
The transverse colon is located between the right colic flexure and the left colic flexure |
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Where in the large intestine is the appendix found? |
cecum |
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What are the pouches in the wall of the colon called? |
haustra |
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What is the cephalic phase an example of? |
the nervous and digestive systems interacting |
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What does gastrin do? |
stimulate gastric secretion |
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What is the greater omentum, where is it, and what does it do? |
it's a fatty apron that anteriorly protects the abdominal viscera |
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What regulates the digestive system? |
-parasympathetic and symphathetic neurons |
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What does the myenteric plexus do? |
coordinates activity of muscularis externa |
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What are mesenteries? |
double sheets of peritoneal membrane that suspend the visceral organs and carry nerves, lymphatics, and blood vessels |
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What can be found in the submucosal plexus? |
-sernsory nerve cells -parasympathetic ganglia -sympathetic postganglionic fibers |
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What is the layer of loose connective tissue that directly supports the digestive epithelium? |
the laminia propria |
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Is the large intestine responsible for water absorption? |
yes |
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What kind of epithelium does the oral mucosa have |
stratified squamous |
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What does the serous membrane that lines the peritoneal cavity do? |
-secretes peritoneal fluid -decreases friction -prevents irritation -lubricates the cavity |
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What does the uvula do? |
prevents food from entering the pharynx prematurely |
|
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dentin |
mineralized matrix similar to bone that makes up the bulk of each tooth |
|
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pulp cavity |
the part of a tooth that contains blood vessels and nerves |
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parasympathetic stimulation causes ________ by all salivary glands |
increased secretion |
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What is the top part of the stomach called |
fundus |
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What are rugae? |
the wrinkles in the wall of the stomach |
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What do parietal cells secrete? |
hydrochloric acid |
|
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hydrochloric acid |
what parietal cells secrete |
|
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what do chief cells secrete |
pepsinogen |
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pepsinogen |
what chief cells secrete |
|
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G cells of stomach secrete |
gastrin |
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gastrin |
what G cells of stomach secrete |
|
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What part of the stomach is the mixing chamber? |
body |
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What does ghrelin do? |
stimulates hunger |
|
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What does leptin do? |
stimulates feeling of satiety |
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What does the enzyme pepsin do? |
digests proteins |
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The _________ empties into the duodenum |
pylorus |
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What would result from a drug that blocks the action of carbonic anhydrase in parietal cells? |
a higher pH during gastric digestion |
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The cystic duct leads into and out of the ____________ |
gallbladder |
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The common bile duct and pancreatic duct empty into this section of the small intestine |
duodenum |
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Where is most chemical digestion and nutrient absorption performed? |
jejunum |
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What is the intestinal hormone that stimulates the pancreas to release a watery, bicarbonate-rich fluid is |
secretin |
|
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what is cholecystokinin? |
an intestinal hormone that stimulates the gallbladder to release bile |
|
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What is gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)? |
an intestinal hormone that stimulates the release of insulin from the pancreatic islet cells |
|
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What is gastrin? |
an intestinal hormone that stimulates gastric secretion |
|
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What are the Kupffer cells of the liver/what do they do? |
-present antigens -are phagocytic -destroy bacteria |
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What does the pancreas produce? |
-lipases and amylase -nucleases -sodium bicarbonate |
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What dat liver do |
-hematological regulation -bile production -metabolic regulation -albumin production for blood osmotic pressure |
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How is hydrochloric acid from the stomach neutralized in the small intestine |
sodium bicarbonate from the feces |
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Wat dat large intestine do |
reabsorption of water and compaction of feces |
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what are mass movements |
powerful peristaltic contractions that occur a few times each day in the colon |
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how are polysaccharides digested |
amylase |
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how are proteins digested |
trypsin |
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lactos |
glucose + galactose |
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What does regulation of digestion depend on? |
-enteric nervous syste -endocrine nervous system -central nervous system |
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the liver produces the most ________ in the body |
urea |
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what cells perform gluconeogenesis |
liver cells |
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When NAD+ is ________ it becomes NADH. When NADH is _______________ it becomes NAD+ |
reduced; oxidized |
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What happens during beta-oxidation? |
fatty acids are converted into molecules of acetyl-CoA |
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what is metabolism |
the sum of all biochemical processes going on within the human body at any given time |
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What can ATP be used for |
-glycogen synthesis -muscle contraction -protein synthesis -ion transport |
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Why do cells have to synthesize new organic compounds? |
-to support growth -to perform structural maintenance or repairs -to produce secretions -to store nutrient reserves |
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What is the function of the citric acid cycle? |
to remove hydrogen atoms from organic molecules, and transfer them to coenzymes |
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In the ETS, what accepts electrons from one molecule and transfers them to another? |
a coenzyme |
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What happens during glycolysis? |
In order: |
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What does the citric acid cycle start with |
the formation of a molecule of citric acid |
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When is the carbon dioxide of respiration formed |
the citric acid cycle |
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What is the role of NADH in metabolism? |
to transport hydrogen atoms to coenzymes in the mitochondrial cristae |
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What happens in the electron transport chain? |
In order: -NADH and FADH2 donate H atoms -reduced molecules transfer energy to ATP formation -oxidative phosphorylation leads to ATP formation |
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What does synthesis of fatty acids begin with? |
acetyl-CoA |
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linoleic and linolenic acid |
essential fatty acids |
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chylomicrons |
lipoproteins that carry absorbed lipids from the intestinal tract to the bloodstream |
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Vitamin B6 |
removal of the amino group from amino acids in the first step of their catabolism requires a coenzyme derived from this |
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the liver forms glycogen during the ____________ state |
absorptive |
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the major cation in cytoplasm is |
potassium |
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the major anion in body fluids |
chloride |
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cation that's essential for muscle contraction, nerve function, and blood clotting |
calcium |
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beriberi is caused by deficiency of |
thiamin |
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afferent arteriole |
supplies blood to nephron |
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efferent arteriole |
takes blood away from arteriole |
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juxtaglomerular complex |
consists of specialized cells that secrete renin when glomerular BP falls |
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the proximal convoluted tubule is the part of the renal tubules that is connected to the ____________ |
glomerular capsule |
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what hormone causes the kidney to increase the body's content of sodium |
aldosterone |
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which section of nephron performs most of the glucose and water reabsorption? |
proximal convoluted tubule |
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The renal corpuscle filters __________ |
blood plasma |
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Does the nephron loop do any secretion? |
nah |
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Urine passes through which of the following structures? |
In order: |
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This is NOT a normal part of urine |
protein |
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Sympathetic stimulation of the kidney will not: |
increase the glomerular filtration rate |
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the passive force that creates filtrate is |
glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP) |
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What maintains glomerular filtration rate? |
autoregulation |
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what GFR-regulating mechanism is initiated by cells of the juxtaglomerular complex? |
renin-angiotensin system |
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ADH causes |
a decrease in urine volume but an increase in solute concentration |
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what does the ability to form concentrated urine depend on? |
the function of the loop of Henle and the collecting duct |
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What is secreted by the distal convoluted tubule |
-potassium ions -hydrogen ions -penicillin -creatinine |
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increased aldosterone = kidneys producing ______________ |
urine with a lower concentration of sodium ions |
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what kind of epithelium lines the ureters and urinary bladder |
transitional epithelium |
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How is a drop in blood pH compensated for |
excretion of more hydrogen ions and fewer bicarbonate ions |
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What is in extracellular fluid? |
interstitial fluid, plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, lymph |
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Which hormone has the most effect on the osmolarity of blood? |
ADH |
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_____________ is released by heart muscle in response to excessive chamber volume |
natriuretic peptides |
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Which body fluids do protein buffers play a major role? |
intracelllular fluid (including RBCs), and plasma |
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What does hypoventilation lead to? |
respiratory acidosis |
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How can someone get metabolic acidosis |
prolonged vomiting, poorly controlled DM |
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What hormones are produced by the placenta? |
relaxin, progesterone, hcG |
