A & P 2 Block 3 Review

Front 1

What is Arterial blood pH?

Back 1

7.4

pH range is 1 to 14

Front 2

Formula for pH

Back 2

Front 3

What is Acidosis? Define

Back 3

A pH below 7.4

Front 4

What is Alkalosis?

Back 4

A pH above 7.4

Front 5

What does a high concentration of H* ions cause?

Back 5

Acidosis

Front 6

What does a low concentration of H* ions cause?

Back 6

Alkalosis

Front 7

What are the 3 defense systems in pH

Back 7

Buffer systems, respiratory center, and kidneys

Front 8

What are the 3 buffer systems?

Back 8

Bicarbonate ( HCO3)

Phosphate

Protein

Front 9

Why is the Bicarbonate buffet system the most important?

Back 9

Its 2 components can be regulated by the body; CO2 by the respiratory system and bicarbonate by the kidneys. So pH can be regulated up ir down as needed

Front 10

Where is the phosphate buffer system most beneficial?

Back 10

In the tubular fluids of the kidneys

Front 11

Why is the protein buffer system the most powerful?

Back 11

Protein is in such high concentration in the body; because CO2, H+, bicarbonate can diffuse quickly for pH changes. pH change inside cell are reflected in extracellular fluid.

Front 12

What is the H+ effect on pulmonary ventilation?

Back 12

It has a direct effect on the respiratory center in the medulla, and effects the rate of ventilation

Front 13

When can't the respiratory system return pH to normal,

Back 13

When an abnormality outside the respiratory system is the cause for the change in pH. Because the stimulus triggering the increase or decrease in respiration will be lost.

Front 14

H+ is considered a_?

Bicarbonate is a _?

Back 14

H+ is an acid.

Bicarbonate is a base

Front 15

How do the Kidneys help regulate h+ concentration?

Back 15

If extracellular fluid us too acidic, it excretes acidic urine;

If the extracellular fluid is alkalinic, it extretes an alkaline urine

Front 16

The Glomerular filtrates what?

Back 16

It continuously filters large amounts of bicarbonate from the blood, (removing the base). If h+ isnt also secreted out, the pH drops because h+ concentration increases

Front 17

What is secreted into the renal tubular lumens

Back 17

Large amounts of H+ ions, removing it from extracellular fluid, if needed. If bicarbonate isn't removed, it causes Metabolic Alkalosis

Front 18

Respiratory acidosis

Back 18

Frequently caused by a pathological condition. Ex. of causes: pneumonia (co2 can't easily leave), respiratory obstruction, damage to respiratory center, deceased pulmonary membrane area, any structure change can cause acidosis

Front 19

Causes of respiratory alkalosis?

Back 19

Physiological- Living at sea level and traveling to an area with high elevation. Air has less O2, triggers carotid/aorta bodies to increase breathing, too much Co2 is expelled.

Psychoneurosis (hyperventilation) causes over breathing.

Front 20

Metabolic acidosis/alkalosis

Back 20

Refers to all other abnormalities of acid-bace balance besides those caused by excessive or insufficient Co2

Front 21

Causes of metabolic acidosis

Back 21

Diarrhea losing large amounts of bicarbonate.

Vomiting from deep in the gi tract, below the stomach.

Failure of kidneys to remove acid, causing uremia.

Diabetes lack if insulin prevents normal use if glucose

Front 22

Metabolic alkalosis caused by

Back 22

Administration of diuretic or alkaline drugs.

Loss of Cl ions with excessive vomiting of stomach contents.

Excessive aldosterone

Front 23

Exocrine glands secret into where

Back 23

Into duct, like sebaceous glans

Front 24

Endocrine glands excrete where

Back 24

Hormones into interstitial fluid to targeted organs

Front 25

What are the hormones of the anterior pituitary? 6

Back 25

Growth hormone,

Adrenocorticotropin,

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH),

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH),

Luteinizing hormone (LH),

Prolactin

Front 26

What does growth hormone do

Back 26

Causes growth of almost all cells and tissue in the body

Front 27

Adrenocorticotropin does what?

Back 27

Causes the adrenal cortex to secret adrenalcortical hormones.

Front 28

Thyroid stimulating hormone does what?

Back 28

Causes the thyroid gland to secret thyroxine and triiodothyronin.

Front 29

Follical stimulating hormone does what

Back 29

Causes the growth of the follicles in the ovaries prior to ovulation & promotes the formation of sperm in the testies.

Front 30

Luteinizing hormone ( LH) does what

Back 30

Plays an important role in causing ovulation; secretion of female sex hormones by ovaries and testosterone by the testies

Front 31

Prolactin does what

Back 31

Promotes the development of the breast and section if milk

Front 32

Hormones of the posterior pituitary? 2

Back 32

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH),

Oxytocin.

Front 33

Antidiuretic hormone does what

Back 33

Aka vassopressin.

Causes the kidneys to retain h2o, causing increase in h2o the body.

In high concentration it causes construction of the blood vessels through the body, increasing arterial bp

Front 34

Oxytocin does what

Back 34

Contracts uterus during the birthing process. Also contracts the myoepithelial cells in the breast to express milk while the baby suckles

Front 35

Adrenal glands?

Back 35

Adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

Front 36

Adrenal medulla function and its Hormones

Back 36

Function to stimulate the sympathetic nervous system. Secretes hormones in response to stimulation. Epinephrine and norepinephrine

Front 37

Norepinephrine causes?

Back 37

Vassoconstriction of essentially all vessels in the body and inhibits the gi tract(stops parastolic movement).

Some increase in heart activity

Front 38

Epinephrine causes

Back 38

Increased heart activity, increased force contractions, increased hr= increase cardiac output. Greater effect on the heart than norepi

Front 39

Hormones of adrenal cortex

Back 39

Glucocorticoids (primary Cortisol ) & mineralcorticoids (primary Aldosterone).

Minimal sex hormones

Front 40

Cortisol function

Back 40

Multiple metabolic functions for control of metabolism of carbs, fats, & proteins.

Front 41

Mineralcorticoids, primary is Aldosterone cause

Back 41

Reduces or increases sodium (Na) extretion by kidneys, can result in increased Na in body and decreasing the amount of K in the body.

Front 42

Tyroxine( T4) & triiodothyronine cause (T3)

Back 42

Increases the general overall level of the body metabolism, mostly in growing kids.

Front 43

Hormones from Islets of Langethans of the pancreas

Back 43

Insulin and glucagon

Front 44

Insulin does

Back 44

Secreted by Beta cells from islets of Langethans. Promotes entry of glucose into most cells, and therby controls rate of metabolism of most carbs

Front 45

Glucagon does

Back 45

Secreted by Alpha cells when blood glucose is too low. Increases the level of glucose from the liver into the circulating body fluids

Front 46

Hormones of the ovaries

Back 46

Estrogens and progesterone, secreted in response to FSH and LH from anterior pituitary

Front 47

Estrogens function at puberty?

Back 47

Stimulate the development of female sex organs, breast, & various secondary sex characteristics

Front 48

Progesterone function?

Back 48

Helps prepare the endometrium of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized ovum & prepares mammary glands for milk secretions

Hint 48

Produces

Front 49

Testosterone from testies at puberty?

Back 49

Stimulates the growth of male sex organs, promotes growth of secondary male sex characteristics, important in sex drive

Front 50

Parathyroid hormone controls

Back 50

Important in Ca & phosphate metabolism, secreted by chief cells. Calcium concintraion in extracellular fluid by 3 mechanisms.

Absorption of CA in gi tract,

Excretion of CA by kidneys (primary),

Release of Ca from bones( secondary).

Front 51

Hormones of the placenta? 4

Back 51

Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hcg)

Estrogen,

Progesterone,

Human somatommamotropin.

All needed for normal pregnancy

Front 52

Human chorionic gonadotrophin?

Back 52

Promotes growth in the corpus luteum & its secretion of estrogen & progesterone.

Regulates estrogen & progesterone. Slight stimulating effect on testosterone in males.

Front 53

Estrogen in pregnancy promotes

Back 53

Growth of the mothers sex organs & some tissue if the fetus

Front 54

Progesterone in pregnancy

Back 54

Probably promotes development of some fetal tissue & organs, helps promote the development of secretory apparatus in the mothers breast

Front 55

Human somatommamotropin in pregnancy

Back 55

Probably promotes growth with some fetal tissue as well as the development of the mothers breast

Front 56

Hormone of the pineal gland

Back 56

Melatonin. Located inferior and aterior to the thalamus

Front 57

Melatonin does

Back 57

Secretion varies in relationship to light level from environment. Less light = more melatonin, and visevera. Increased blood levels cause drowsiness

Front 58

Posterior pituitary aka?

Back 58

Neural pituitary, made up of neural tissue of neurosecretory cells. 25% of pituitary

Front 59

Pituitary is regulated by?

Back 59

The hypothalamus

Front 60

How is cortisol stimulated?

Back 60

Excitation of Hypothalamus to different types if stress can cause immediate release of cortisol. Trauma, infection, intense temps, injection of epi, surgery, debilitating disease.

Front 61

What happens without mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)?

Back 61

K concentration in extracellular fluid increases rapidly.

Sodium & chloride decrease.

Extracellular fluid volume reduced, reduces venous return, reducing cardiac output, leading to death.

Considered life saving portion of adrenal cortex

Front 62

Factors that regulate Aldosterone secretion? 3

Back 62

Increased k in extracellular fluid.

Increased angiotensin 2.

Decreased extracellular sodium.

Front 63

What happens in men with too much or too little thyroid hormones?

Back 63

Too little causes a loss of lobedo. Too much causes impotence.

Front 64

What happens to women with too little thyroid hormones?

Back 64

Causes excessive/frequent menses, irregular menses and amenorrhea

Front 65

What are the most common symptoms of increased thyroid hormones?

Back 65

(Metabolism of carbs and fat.) Tachycardia. If really high, there's decreased force of contractions of the heart

Front 66

What is the most potent factor in controlling glucagon secretions?

Back 66

Blood glucose levels.

If glucose is too low, glucagon increases

If glucose is too high, glucagon decreases.

Front 67

What happens of insulin levels after abrupt increase in blood glucose?

Back 67

2 stages: 1: stores in beta cells are dumped. 2: insulin production starts and theres a rise if levels.

Front 68

What causes diabetes mellitus?

Back 68

Prolonged secretion of these hormones in large amounts can exhaust beta cells in islets of Langerhans.

Front 69

Type 1 DM results from

Back 69

Diminishes secretions of insulin by beta cells. Most common in young

Front 70

Type 2 dm caused by

Back 70

Lack of insulin and /or the bodies ability to use insulin efficiently.

Front 71

Female reproductive years marked by?

Back 71

Monthly rhythmic cycle of estrogen and progesterone, usually 28days

Front 72

Function of estrogen at puberty?

Back 72

20x rapid increase in reproductive yes. Changes sex organs to adult. Changes vaginal epithelium from cuboidal to stratified squamous ( protection). Breast and milk apparatus development. Closes epiphysis in long bones. Proliferation & growth of specific cells

Front 73

Loss of estrogen in menopause causes

Back 73

Loss vaginal secrets, hot flashes, irritable, fatigue, psychic sensation of dyspnea, anxiety

Front 74

Progesterone function in adult female?

Back 74

Prepares the uterus for fertilized ovum in last 1/2 of menstrual cycle. Decreases frequency of uterine contractions. Also prepared breast tissue to secret milk

Front 75

What causes rapid increase of testosterone?

Back 75

Stimulation of gonatotripic hormones from anterior pituitary FSH & LH.

Front 76

What is the role of vitamin D?

Back 76

It favors the increase of Ca and phosphate absorption in GI tract.

Front 77

Where is sperm produced?

Back 77

In the seminiferous tubules.

Front 78

Which cells in the testicles products testosterone?

Back 78

Leydig cells

Front 79

Spermatogenic

Back 79

Sperm forming cells

Front 80

Production on sperm is called

Back 80

Spermatogenesis

Front 81

Sertoli cells

Back 81

Support and protect developing sperm

Front 82

What are the 3 parts of sperm and what do they do

Back 82

1. Head contains chromosomes.

2. Acrosome facilitate ovum penetration by sperm.

3. Tail containers ATP and mitochondria

Front 83

Testosterone production increases rapidly under what stimulation?

Back 83

Gonadotropic hormones from anterior pituitary (FSH promotes sperm production & LH promotes the secretion if testosterone

Front 84

After puberty male sex organs?

Back 84

Increase conciberably before age 30

Front 85

What happens in the epididymis?

Back 85

Sperm maturation. Sperm acquires motility & ability to fertilize an ovum

Front 86

Fluid produced in the seminal vesicles

Back 86

Alkaline viscus fluid makes up 60‰ of semen volume. Important to neutralize female reproductive tract. Provides energy and motility to sperm

Front 87

Fluid secreted by the prostate

Back 87

Makes up 25% of semen volume, slightly acidic, helps with viability and motility. Has citric acid for ATP production. Proteolytic enzymes to break down clotting of seminal vesicles. And seminal plasma acts as abx

Front 88

During sexual stimulation the bulbourethral grand secrets?

Back 88

An alkaline fluid into the spongy urethra that protects sperm from acid. Also mucus that lines the urethra to prevent sperm damage while passing. Secretes to penile head at sexual arousal.

Front 89

What are the 3 structures of the penis shaft?

Back 89

2 Corpus Cavernosum that are important in erections.

1 Corpus Spongiosum that surrounds the urethra.

All surrounded in a fiber sheet.

Front 90

Erection produced how?

Back 90

Parasympathetic impulses pass from sacral spinal cord thru the Nervi Erigentes to the penis. Arteries dilate, increased blood in cavernousum.

Front 91

During sex, what structures secret mucus in males?

Back 91

Parasympathetic stimulation causes urethral & bulbourethral glands to secrete mucus

Front 92

What maintains a flaccid penis

Back 92

Sympathetic contractile nerve impulses.

Front 93

What maintains an erect penis?

Back 93

Parasympathetic factors induce smooth muscle relaxation and erection

Hint 93

Needs to be hard for penetration

Front 94

What brings on emission and ejaculation?

Back 94

Stimulation gets intense, reflex center of spinal cord emit sympathetic impulses out thru spinal cord at L1 &L2 to genitals thru hypogastric & pelvic plexuses to initiate emission( start of ejaculation)

Front 95

Route of ejaculation

Back 95

Powerful release of semen from the urethra to the exterior is a sympathetic reflex coordinated by lumbar spinal cord.

Front 96

What is meiosis

Back 96

Cell division occurs during production of gamates involving 2 successive nuclear division leaving 2 haploid cells

Front 97

What happens to the Primary Oocyte

Back 97

It splits into 2 haploid cells of unequal sizes. 1 secondary oocyte that's larger, & the other first polar body is smaller.

Front 98

What is a zygote?

Back 98

When the nuclei of sperm and about ovum unite into diploid cell

Front 99

What is an Oocyte?

Back 99

Female sex cell (gamate) haploid

Front 100

What is oogenesis?

Back 100

Formation & development of oocyte.

Front 101

What hormones stimulate milk production?

Back 101

Prolactin (anterior pituitary), progesterone, estrogen.

Front 102

What is the function of breast/mammory glands

Back 102

Make, secrets, and ejects milk

Front 103

What female gland secrets mucous during sex?

Back 103

Bartholin gland (greater vesibular gland), after parasympathetic impulses pass through

Front 104

Female erectile tissue

Back 104

Parasympathetic nerves pass tru sacral plexus thru nervi erigentes in external genitals to engorge the bulb of vestibule with blood, tightens vagina, also clitoris.

Front 105

Ovaries secret?

Back 105

Estrogen & testosterone in response to FSH and LH.

Front 106

Female reproductive cycle

Back 106

Monthly change of various hormones & organs over 28 days

Front 107

FSH & LH stimulate ovarian target cells to?

Back 107

6-12 Follicles to grow and mature for ovulation, with 1 outgrowing the others to be released

Front 108

Ovulation is dependent on?

Back 108

Initial surge of Leutinizing hormone LH

Front 109

Estrogen at puberty

Back 109

Increases 20x under FSH & LH, change in female sex organs

Front 110

What is the estrogen effect on the Fallopian tubes?

Back 110

Increased # of cillia epithelia & activity increase to favor movement of ovum from fimriae into uterus

Front 111

What is the female sexual act dependent on?

Back 111

Both psychic stimulation & local stimulation

Front 112

Female erogenous areas?

Back 112

Nipples, labia minora, clit, g spot

Front 113

Stages of female sexual response cycle?

Back 113

Desire ( psychology, pheramon, testosterone.)

Arousal (increased blood flow, nipples tighten, lubricant, organs swell).

Plateau ( maintain state, increased sensitive, vaginal walls swell)

Orgasm ( intense pleasure, muscle contracts, uterus twist, vagina lengthens)

Resolution