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234 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Glycolysis
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Harvests chemical energy by converting 1 glucose molecule to 2 pyruvate molecules
1 Glucose --> 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O |
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Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)
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Acetyl CoA is oxidised to CO2
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Pyruvate Oxidation
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Pyruvate is oxidised to Acetyl CoA in mitochondria
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Chemiosmosis
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Conversion of electrons by ETC for synthesis of ATP
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Energy Investment Phase
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Stage of Glycolysis where 2 ATP are "invested" to split glucose
2 ATP --> 2 P + 2 ADP |
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Energy Payoff Phase
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Stage of Glycolysis where 4 ATP are formed by substrate level phosporylation
AND 2 NADH formed by glucose oxidation |
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Net yield from Glycolysis
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2 ATP + 2 NADH
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Cellular Respiration
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Process where fuel is broken down to form ATP through Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, The Citric Acid Cycle & Chemiosmosis
Max ATP production per glucose = 30 - 32 ATP (34% efficient) |
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Does Glycolysis happen if O2 is present?
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Yes
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Name the 3 stages of Pyruvate Oxidation
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1) Carboxyl group is removed from Pyruvate as CO2
2) The remaining 2 C fragment is oxidized to become acetate (e- --> NAD+ --> NADH) 3) Sulfur containing coenzyme-A binds to acetate forming acetyl CoA |
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What is the net product from the CAC
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1 ATP, 3 NADH & 1 FADH2
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What electron carrier(s) move electrons from the CAC to the ETC?
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NADH & FADH2
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Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
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Collection of molecules (mainly proteins) embedded in the inner layer or mitochondrion membrane which releases energy from the "falling" of electrons in smaller amounts (steps)
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Proton Motive Force
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The ETC uses the exergonic flow of electrons to pump H+ ions across the mitocondrian membrane to create a H+ gradient. This is used to power ATP synthase
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ATP synthase
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4 sub unit "molecular mill" that uses the H+ gradient created by the ETC to power the synthesis of ATP molecules
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Anaerobic Respiration
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ATP production without oxygen -- Uses final e- acceptor other than O2
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Alcohol Fermentation
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Pyruvate is converted to alcohol via the reduction of acetylaldehyde by NADH which regenerates NAD+
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Lactic Acid Fermentation
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Pyruvate reduced by NADH to lactate when O2 is scarce
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Photosynthesis
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Conversion of light energy to the chemical energy of food
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Chloroplasts
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Site of photosynthesis
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What do plant cells have that animal cells do not?
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Cell wall (strength), Plasmodesmata (connects cells), Central Vacuole (storage & waste breakdown) and Chloroplasts (photosynthesis)
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Cell Walls
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Consist of microfibrills of polysaccharide cellulose in a matrix of other polysaccharides & protein
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Stomata
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Site of gas exchange (O2 & CO2)
Major avenue for water loss 2 Guard cells regulate opening/closing |
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Stroma
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Fluid inside cholorplast
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Thylakoids
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Third membrane system of sacs in stroma that are stacked in grana
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Chlorophyll
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Green pigment that absorbs violet-blue & red light (reflects green) that is found in the thylakoid membrane
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Describe photosynthesis as a REDOX process
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CO2 is reduced to sugar
H2O is reduced to O2 |
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Light Reactions
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First stage of photosynthesis where ATP and NADPH are produced for use in the Calvin Cycle & O2 is produced.
(Occurs in Thylakoid membrane) |
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List the two stages of Photosynthesis
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Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle
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Describe the basic process of a light reaction
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1) Energy from light drives the transfer of elections and H+ from water to NADP+ --> NADPH
2) ATP is produced using chemiosmosis (and ATP synthase) 3) ATP & NADPH are then used in the Calivin Cycle |
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Describe the basic process of the Calvin Cycle
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1) CO2 from the air is incorporated into organic molecules in chloroplast (Carbon Fixation)
2) Fixed carbon is reduced to carbohydrates (sugar) by addition of electrons using the reducing power of NADPH (requires ATP) |
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Photosynthetic Pigments
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substances that absorb visible light
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Photosystem
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Energy from light is passed down from pigment molecule to pigment molecule to a primary electron acceptor.
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What is the purpose of the 2 chlorophyll a molecules in a photosystem?
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They are able to use the energy of light to not only boost their electrons but to transfer that electron to the primary electron acceptor
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What happens in PS I?
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1) A photon of light excites a pigment which passes the e- to the P680 chlorophyll a pair.
2)P680 passes the electron to the primary e- acceptor. 3) An enzyme splits water into 2 e-, 2H+ and O2 (these e- replace the electrons lost by P680) |
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What happens after an electron reaches the Primary e- acceptor in PS I?
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The photoexcited e- is passed to PS II by the ETC, passing through the cytochrome complex, which contribes to generating a H+ gradient for ATP synthesis
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What happens in PS II?
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1) Light energy is transferred to PS II from the ETC
2) Carried by pigments to P700 which passes the e- on to the electron acceptor 3) electron is passed down the second ETC through ferredoxin (Fd) and NADP+ reductase (catalyzes formation of NADPH) |
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Cyclic Electron Flow
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A "short circuit" where e- flows back from Fd ETC to cytochrome ETC and then back to the P700 pair. (only ATP is produced)
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In what organisms does Cyclic Electron Flow occur
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Photosynthetic bacteria, cyanobacteria & eukaryotic photosynthetic species
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Calvin Cycle
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Carbon Fixation + synthesis of sugar in the Stroma
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List and describe the three phases of the Calvin Cycle
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1) Carbon Fixation: 1 C from CO2 is attached to a 5C sugar (RuBP) <-- unstable
2) Reduction: Produces G3P using energy from ATP and e- from NADPH 3) Regeneration of RuBP: In a complex series of reactions that require ATP, 5 G3P are rearranged into 3 RuBP |
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Carbon Fixation is catalyzed by?
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Rubisco - Catalyzes the addition of 1 C to a 5 C sugar
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Photorespiration
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Occurs when CO2 is scarce, CO2 is replaced with O2 in the reaction adding 1 C to RuBP in Calvin Cycle
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Why is Photorespiration wasteful?
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ATP is required and no sugar is produced + Carbon is removed from the Calvin Cycle
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In what type of plants does Photorespiration occur?
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C3
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What is an alternate mode of Carbon Fixation for a C4 plant?
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PEP carboylase fixes CO2 as oxaloacetate in outer mesophyll cells
This is later transported to bundle sheaths which release stored CO2 |
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What is an alternate mode of Carbon Fixation for a CAM plant?
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CAM plants take up CO2 at night & incorporate it into organic acids then store it in vacuole of mesophyll cells
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Stems & Leaves
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Absorb CO2 and light & are photosynthetic
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Roots
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Absorb water and minerals from soil via root hairs, anchor plant in soil and storage (tap root)
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Vascular System
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Connects the 2 systems carrying water/minerals from roots to leaves (xylem) & carries photosynthates (sugars) in both directions (phloem)
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Prop/Buttress Roots
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Provide structural support
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Storage Roots
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Store food/water (i.e. radishes carrots)
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Pneumataphores
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Project about the surface in swamps to obtain O2
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Aerial Roots
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Sent out by strangler fig seedlings growing in tree tops
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Rhizomes
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Horizontal shoots with grow underground
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Bulbs
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Vertical underground shoots consisting of enlarged leaf bases which store food
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Stolons
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Horizontal shoots growing along the surface giving rise to new plants
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Tubers
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Enlarged ends of rhizomes or stolons (potatoes)
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Tendrils
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Leaves found in climbing plants
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Spines
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Leaves that provide protections
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Storage Leaves
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Store water
|
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Reproductive Leaves
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Small adventitious plantlets fall of the leaf and take root
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Bracts
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"flower like" modified leaves
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Dermal Tissue
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Plants outer protective covering
--> epidermis in non woody plants --> periderm in woody plants |
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Vascular Tissue
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Carries out long distance transport (xylem and phloem)
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Ground Tissue
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Internal (pith) and external (cortex) to vascular tissue. Specialized for storage
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Parenchyma Cells
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Have thin, flexible primary walls, no secondary walls
Large central vacuoles Perform most metabolic functions of a plant cell |
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Collenchyma Cells
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Occur in strands & help support young parts of plant shoots
Thick primary walls (strings of celery) Remain alive at maturity |
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Sclerenchyma Cells
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Supporting cells with thick secondary walls
Contain lots of lignin Form wood/hard shells of nuts Dead at maturity, but lasts hundreds of years |
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Xylem
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Move water over long distances
Two types: Tracheids & Vessels Dead at functional maturity, and secondary walls strengthened with lignin |
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Tracheids
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Long, thin with tapering ends & pits through with water can pass
All plants have this |
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Vessels
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Short, wide, thin walled tubes stacked end to end with perforation plates between adjacent cells.
Water can pass through perforation plates Occurs in angiosperms only |
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Phloem
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Chains of cells called seive tube elements that contain seive plates
Lack nucleus, ribosomes, vacuole & cytoskeleton (enables easier nutrient transportation) |
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Companion Cell
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Connected to seive tube in Phloem by plasmodesmata & provides metabolic support for both itself and seive tube
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Apical Meristem
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Lengthens roots/shoots (primary growth)
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Lateral Meristem
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Increases diameter of roots/shoots (secondary growth)
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Root Cap
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Protects apical meristem & secretes polysaccharide slime
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List the 3 zones of cells behind a growing tip of a plant
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1) Cell divison: Mitotic cells revealed by staining for cyclin
2) Cell Elongation: to 10x the original length 3) Cell Differentiation: Dermal, ground, vascular etc |
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Root Hairs
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Increase surface area for absorption of water/minerals
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Shoot Apical Meristem
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(at tip) shoot elongation occurs due to lengthening of internode cells below tip
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Leaf Primordia
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Gives rise to leaves
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Axilliary Buds
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Give rise to branching
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What do monocots have that allow leaves to regrow
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Some monocots have meristems at the base of stems and leaves (i.e. grass)
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Palisade Mesophyll
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Elongated parenchyma cells
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Spongy mesophyll
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Loosely packed cells with air spaces
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Ground Tissue is mostly __________
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Parenchyma cells
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Secondary Growth
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Increases the diameter of roots/shoots
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Primary Growth
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Lengthens roots/shoots
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Vascular Cambium
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1 Cell thick cylidner of meristem cells
Adds secondary xylem & secondary phloem increasing vascular flow and support |
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Vascular Cambium meristem cell
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Can divide to form another stem cell (C), secondary xylem (X) or secondary phloem cell (P)
Can produce more xylem than phloem |
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Heartwood
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Old secondary xylem layers
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Sapwood
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New secondary xylem layers (still transfer sap)
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Bark
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Secondary Phloem & periderm
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Periderm
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Cork cells which deposit suberin
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Suberin
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A wasy hydrophobic material that protects stem
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Transpiration
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Loss of water from leaves
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Phloem Sap
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Transfers sugars in both directions from site of production to site of storage
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Xylem Sap
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Transports water from roots to shoots
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Gas Exchange
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Through stomata in leaves
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Apoplast
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Tissue compartment exterior to plasma membrane (i.e. cell wall, tracheids)
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Symplast
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Cytosol of all plants living cells and plasmodesmata
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Apoplastic route
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Movement of water/solutes along continuum of cell wall and extra cellular spaces
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Symplastic route
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Movement of water/solutes along continuum of cytosol
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Transmembrane route
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Water/solutes moves out of one cell, across cell wall and across plasma membrane into another cell
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Water Potential
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Direction of movement of water by osmosis
= osmotic potential + pressure |
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Water moves from _____ water potential to _____ water potential
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Water moves from high water potential to low water potential
|
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Solutes have what effect on water potential
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Solutes decrease osmotic water potential
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If the cellular water potential > environment water potential
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Water moves out of the cell (high to low)
Cell membrane/cytoplasm shrink and pull away from cell wall = plasmolysis |
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If the cellular water potential < environment water potential
|
Water moves into the cell (high to low)
Cell swells and is opposed by turgor pressure from elastic cell wall |
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Bulk flow
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Movement of water in response to a pressure gradient
High to low pressure Occurs in xylem and sieve tube elements of phloem MUCH faster than diffusion (15 - 45 m/hour) |
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Symplastic Route in xylem
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Minerals already in the symplast have already been "screened" by the selectively permeable plasma membrane
These materials access xylem via the plasmodesmata |
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Apoplastic route in xylem
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Water/minerals diffuse into cortex along matrix of cell walls and extra cellular spaces
These materials enter the xylem after passing through plasma membrane, guided by the casparian strip |
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Casparian Strip
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A belt of suberin which is impermeable to water, that forces materials to pass through the plasma membrane
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Secondary Mechanism of Bulk Flow
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At night there is no transpiration but root cells continue to pump ions into xylem
Accumulating solutes lower water potential in the xylem and water flows in via osmosis from cortex = root pressure |
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Describe the generation of Transpirational Pull
|
1) Water diffuses from moist air spaces to drier air
2) Initially water is replaced from water film that coats mesophyll cells 3) Evaporation of water film generates surface tension (negative pressure) 4) Surface tension pulls water from surrounding cells which pulls water from xylem = transpirational pull |
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Cohesion - Tension Hypothesis
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Water is pulled up xylem molecule by molecule due to adhesion and cohesion forces
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Adhesion
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Attractive force between water molecules and other polar molecules that offsets the downwards force of gravity
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Cohesion
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Attractive force between water molecules by hydrogen bonding
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How is the rate of transpiration regulated?
|
Stomatal density (95% of water loss) and the opening and closing of stomata.
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Guard Cells
|
Bow out when they take up water
Become less bowed when they loose water |
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How do stomata open and close?
|
Active transport of H+ outside of cell creates H+ gradient
Drives K+ ions into guard cell which decreases water potential Water enters cell (high to low water potential) by osmosis |
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Aquaporin Channels
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Helps regulate water movement (and thereby opening/closing) in guard cells of stomata
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Translocation
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The movement of sugar from sources to sinks by phloem
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How is sucrose loaded into phloem?
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Active transport involving a H+ pump & co-transporter pump sucrose into phloem (Chemiosmosis)
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What are the 9 Macronutrients?
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C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg
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What are the 8 Micronutrients
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Cl, Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu, Ni, Mo
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Hydrophonic Culture
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Identifies 17 essential elements needed by all plants
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Chlorosis
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Yellowing of leaves due to Mg deficiency
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Decomposers
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Soil bacteria living on decaying material from dead plants
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Rhizobacteria
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Live in rhizosphere
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Rhizosphere
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A soil layer that forms a microbe-enriched ecosystem bound to plant roots or inside plants
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Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
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Live in soil and root nodules + produces NH3 (ammonia)
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Mycorrhizae
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Mutualistic association of fungi and roots
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What is the role of rhizosphere soil bacteria?
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Nitrogen-fixing bacteria produce NH3
NH3 + H+ = ammonium (NH4) = main form of nitrogen used by plants |
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Denitrifying bacteria
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Convert NO3- to N2 so N is lost from soil
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Ectomycorrhizae
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Fungal mycelium forms dense sheath over surface of roots which leads to and increase in SA
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Fungal Hypae
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Extend into soil = increase in SA.
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How is the relationship between fungal hypae and roots mutualistic?
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Fungus gets access to supply of carbs and AA's because hypae extend into roots in extra cellular spaces between root cells
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Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (endomycorrhizae)
|
No dense sheath (like ectomycorrhizae)
Hypae penetrate between epidermal cells into root cortex Digest small patch of cell wall and for tube like processes that invaginate into cell wall without penetrating membrane |
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Sporophyte
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Diploid (2n) & dominant
|
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Gametophyte
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Haploid (n) & microscopic
Contains generative cell and tube cell |
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Describe the development of a male gametophyte
|
Anthers contain microsporangium which contain microsporocytes (2n)
Microsporocytes undergo meiosis and form 4 microspores (n) Microspores undergo mitosis and form a male gametophye |
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Describe the development of a female gametophyte
|
Megasporangium contains diploid megasporocytes
Megasporocytes undergo meiosis forming 4 haploid megaspores (only 1 survives) Megaspore undergos 3 mitotic phases creating 8 haploid nuclei |
|
Polar Nuclei
|
2 are produced with development of female gametophyte
form endosperm |
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Synergids
|
2 are produced with development of female gametophyte
Guide pollen tube to embryo sac |
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Pollination
|
Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
|
|
Sperm + egg =
|
zygote, which is diploid (2n) = embryo
|
|
Sperm + 2 polar nuclei =
|
endosperm, which is triploid (3n)
Function = food storage |
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Positive Phototropism
|
Growth of tip towards light
|
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Auxin
|
hormone for stem elongation
|
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Cytokinins
|
Hormone for cell division in shoots
|
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Gibberellins
|
Hormone for stem elongnation
|
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Brassinosterads
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Hormone for cell expansion/divison in shoots
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ABA
|
Hormone that inhibits growth in plants
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Ethylene
|
Hormone that stimulates ripening of fruit
|
|
Describe the role of Gibberellins (GA) in seed germination
|
GA sends signals to shell --> secretes enzymes which break down sugars and other nutrients
|
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Epithelial Tissue
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Skin, lining of things
|
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Connective Tissue
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Structure of other tissues, blood, bone
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Nervous Tissue
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Neurons and parts of the nervous system
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Regulators
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Use internal control mechanisms to regulate and maintain internal environment
|
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Conformers
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Allow internal environment to change with change in external environment
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Set point
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Physiological variables are maintained near or at this point in the body
**Depends on negative feedback control loops** |
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Thermoregulation
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The process by which animals maintain an internal body temperature within a certain range
|
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Endotherms
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Heat mainly produced by metabolism (thermogenisis)
|
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Ectotherms
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Heat gain mainly from the environment
|
|
Ways to regulate heat loss/gain
|
Insulation
Circulatory adjustments Evaporative heat loss (panting/sweating) Behavioural Responses |
|
What controls thermoregulation in humans
|
Hypothalamus (thermostat)
Circulatory responses |
|
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
|
Minimum MR in a non-growing endotherm at rest, no digestion & not thermoregulating
**Linear relationship between body mass and BMR*** |
|
Essential Amino Acids
|
Methionine, Valine, Threonine, Phenylalanine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Tryptophan & Lysine
|
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Essential Vitamins
|
A, B, C, D
|
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What kind of Fatty Acids are essential to your diet?
|
Unsaturated
|
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Intracellular digestion
|
Simplest design --> cell engulfs food and breaks in down in vacuoles
|
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Extracellular digestion
|
Hydrolysis of food in compartments that are continuous with environment
This way, larger food can be processed |
|
Substrate feeders
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Live in or on their food source
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Fluid Feeders
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Suck nutrient rich fluid from a living host
|
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Suspension Feeders
|
Sift small food particles from water
|
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Bulk feeders
|
ingest large pieces of food
|
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What are the 4 stages of food processing?
|
Ingestion
Digestion Absorption Elimination |
|
Adaptations in the mammalian stomach for digestion
|
Elastic stomach wall
Muscular stomach wall = churning Folded epithelial tissue Secretion of gastric juices (HCl, pepsin, mucus) |
|
Adaptiations for nutrient absorption in the mammalian digestive system
|
Highly folded surface -- villi
Each epithelial cell has microvilli High concentration of membrane bound proteins Extensive blood supply |
|
Appetite regulating hormones
|
Leptin
Ghrelin Insulin PYY |
|
Gas exchange by diffusion/osmosis is effiecient...
|
Over short distances
|
|
Open circulatory system
|
Common to arthropods/most mollusks
Circulatory fluid = hemolymph Bathes organs directly + multiple tubular hears Low pressure = low energy cost |
|
Closed circulatory system
|
Common to all vertabrates
Circulatory Fluid = Blood High pressure = increased O2 delivery effectiveness |
|
Amphibian Circulatory System
|
3 - Chambered Heart
Pulmocutaneous Circuit = lungs + skin Capable of Shunting Incomplete separation of oxygenated & deoxygenated blood |
|
Shunting
|
Redistribution of blood flow away from lungs when underwater
|
|
Reptilian Circulatory System
|
3 Chambered heart with partially dividing septum
Incomplete separation of blood in ventricle Capable of shunting |
|
Reptilian Circulatory System (Crocodiles only)
|
4-chambered heart with vessel between pulmonary & systemic curcuit
|
|
Mammalian Circulatory System
|
4 Chambered heart with fully divided ventricle
No shunting Extensive capillary system |
|
Cardiac Cycle
|
0.8 sec @ 72 bpm
|
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Systole
|
Contraction Phase
|
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Diastole
|
Relaxation Phase
|
|
Describe the path of blood
|
Lungs --> Pul. Vein --> L. Atrium --> L. Ventricle --> Aorta --> top/bottom body --> Inferior/Superior Vena Cava --> R. Atrium --> R. Ventricle --> Lungs
|
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Artery
|
Very thick smooth muscle layer to deal with high blood pressure of blood coming from heart
|
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Vein
|
Thin layer of smooth muscle, carries blood to the heart
|
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Cardiac Output
|
Total blood ejected
= heart rate * stroke volume |
|
Vasoconstriction
|
Contraction of smooth muscle
|
|
Vasodilations
|
Relaxation of smooth muscle
|
|
What controls Vasoconstrictions & Vasodilations?
|
Nervous system (PNS & SNS)
Hormones Local Control by endothelium |
|
Precapillary Sphincters
|
Regulate capillary blood flow by opening or closing
|
|
How are substances exchanged between blood and interstitial fluid across endothelium of capillary walls
|
Fluid is removed by the lymphatic system at a rate that equals the net filtration loss from the capillaries
|
|
Gas exchange in air
|
O2 is plentiful
Less dense/viscous Reletively easy but not efficient (bi directional) |
|
Gas exchange in water
|
40x less air
High density/viscous Energy demanding Unidirectional = high efficeincy |
|
Gill Structure
|
Net diffusion of O2 from water to blood occurs in gill lamelli
|
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Tracheal system in Insects
|
Air filled tubes which permeate the body
|
|
Inhalation
|
Diaphragm contracts = moves down
|
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Exhalation
|
Diaphragn relaxes = moves up
|
|
How is breathing controlled?
|
Automatically
Medulla oblongata sets basic ryhtm Pons = modulates rythm ph (CO2 concentration) of cerebrospinal fluid and ph sensors in major blood vessels |
|
How does CO2 production affect pH?
|
CO2 production decreases pH
|
|
Low pH
|
Decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2
|
|
Bohr Shift
|
More O2 is unloaded in active tissues
|
|
How is CO2 transported?
|
1) 70% as HCO3-
2) 23% bound to AA in Hb 3) 7% in solution in blood plamsa |
|
Barrier Defenses
|
First stop pathogens from entering the body (i.e. skin)
|
|
Molecular Recognition
|
Specific receptors dectect a small number of highly conserved molecules present in many different pathogens
|
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Toll Like Receptors (TRL)
|
Binding of these receptors to a specific molecule initiates a signalling cascade + innate immune response
|
|
TLR4
|
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
|
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TLR3
|
Double Stranded RNA (virus)
|
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TLR5
|
Bacterial Flagellum Protein
|
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Innate Immunity
|
In all animals/plants
Response is not adaptive Rapid response |
|
4 Types of phogocytic cells
|
Natural Killer Cell
Macrophage Dendritic Cells Neutrophils |
|
Fever
|
The resetting of set point to higher temp
|
|
Adaptive Immunity
|
Only in vertebrates
Animals produce a vast number and diversity of receptors each recognizing a small part of pathogen molecule Slower response |
|
B-Cells
|
Develop and mature in bone marrow
|
|
T-Cell
|
Develop in bone marrow & mature in thymus gland
|
|
Humoral Immune Response
|
Antibodies (B-Cells) mark pathogens for destruction in blood/lymph
|
|
Cell Mediated Immune Response
|
Cytotoxic (T-Cells) destroy infected host using toxic gene products
|
|
Osmoregulation
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The balancing of uptake and loss of water & solutes
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Excretion
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The removal of excess solutes, nitrogenous metabolites and other wastes
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Osmoconformer
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Organisms which allows its osmolarity to change with the osmolarity of the environment
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Osmoregulator
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Organism which regulates its osmolarity regardless of the osmolarity of the enivironment
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Describe osmoregulatory problems in Marine Fish
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Body fluids hypoosmotic to seawater
Lose water via osmosis so they drink lots of water This causes an excess of solutes |
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Describe the solution to osmoregulatory problems in Marine Fish
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Chloride cells remove Cl- ions and Na+ follow passively
Kidneys also remove Ca, Mg, & SO4- |
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Describe osmoregulatory problems in Freshwater Fish
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Hyperosmotic to freshwater
Continuously gain water Lose Solutes by diffusion |
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Describe the solution to osmoregulatory problems in Freshwater Fish
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Chloride cells actively transport Cl- and Na+ follows passively
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