Bios 101 Final

Front 1

Keratin:

Back 1

the protein in fingernails, animal horns, feathers

Front 2

Collagen:

Back 2

the protein in cartilage, tendons, and bones

Front 3

transport proteins:

Back 3

some proteins act as transport molecules (ex: hemoglobin) in vertebrate red blood cells, transports oxygen to cells

Front 4

hormonal proteins:

Back 4

some proteins act as hormones (ex: insulin) secreted by the pancreas, regulates blood sugar (glucose) levels

Front 5

storage proteins:

Back 5

Ex: ovalbumin (the protein in egg whites) is used by the developing chick embryo

Front 6

protein compounds which combat/destroy bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances in an organism. produced by white blood cells.

Back 6

antibodies

Front 7

polymers composed of monomers called nucleotides which are linked together by dehydration synthesis

Back 7

nucleic acids

Front 8

nucleotide monomer structure =

Back 8

5 carbon sugar molecule, phosphate functional group, 1 of 5 different nitrogenous bases (A,G,C,T,or U)

Front 9

why are nitrogenous bases named as nitrogenous bases?

Back 9

they tend to take up hydrogen ions from solutions and therefore act as bases

Front 10

nucleotide monomers are linked by what kind of bond?

Back 10

covalent

Front 11

the covalent bonds of nucleotide monomers are formed between ______ molecules and their ________ ______ to form polynucleotides called ______ _______

Back 11

sugar; phosphate groups; nucleic acids

Front 12

chromosomes are composed of:

Back 12

DNA and protein

Front 13

DNA stands for.....

Back 13

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Front 14

each DNA nucleotide is composed of:

Back 14

deoxyribose, a phosphate functional group, 1 of 4 different nitrogenous bases (A,G,C,T)

Front 15

deoxyribose is:

Back 15

the 5 carbon monosaccharide sugar in DNA

Front 16

the "sides of the ladder" in a molecule of DNA are composed of:

Back 16

repeating phosphate functional groups and deoxyribose sugar molecules

Front 17

the "rungs of the ladder" in a molecule of DNA are composed of:

Back 17

pairs of nitrogen bases held together by hydrogen bonds.

Front 18

Adenine only bonds with ____

Back 18

Thymine

Front 19

Cytosine only bonds with _____

Back 19

Guanine

Front 20

RNA stands for:

Back 20

Ribonucleic Acid

Front 21

Each RNA nucleotides is composed of:

Back 21

ribose, a phosphate functional group, 1 of 4 different nitrogenous bases (A,G,C,U)

Front 22

ribose is:

Back 22

the 5 carbon monosaccharide sugar in each RNA nucleotides

Front 23

Uracil is used instead of Thymine in:

Back 23

RNA

Front 24

Thymine is used instead of Uracil in:

Back 24

DNA

Front 25

RNA is composed of a _____ chain of nucleotides.

Back 25

single

Front 26

proteins are composed of ______ _____ monomers.

Back 26

amino acids

Front 27

the "building block" subunit of a protein

Back 27

amino acids

Front 28

Protein structure:

Back 28

a central C atom bonded to an H atom, a carboxyl group, an R group and an amino group

Front 29

Each protein is composed of a central __ atom, which is bonded to an __ atom, an amino group (NH2), a ______ (acid) group (COOH), and an R group

Back 29

C; H; carboxyl

Front 30

NH2

Back 30

amino group

Front 31

COOH

Back 31

carboxyl group

Front 32

the variable part of the amino group; it may be only a H atom or a carbon skeleton with various functional groups attached, is different for each amino acid. the physical and chemical properties of ______ determine the unique properties of an amino acid

Back 32

R group

Front 33

____ amino acids are naturally occurring but only ___ are used to build the majority of proteins

Back 33

150; 20

Front 34

like fats, amino acids are synthesized within living cells using _____ and __ compounds as starting materials

Back 34

sugars; N

Front 35

Nitrogen Fixation

Back 35

conversion of nitrogen gas in the atmosphere into usable N compounds such as ammonia, nitrate, nitrites.

Front 36

Nitrogen Fixation is carried out by:

Back 36

certain species free-living in the soil (bacteria), certain species of cyanobacteria in special cells called heterocysts, AND bacteria living symbiotically in roots of legumes

Front 37

humans are unable to synthesize __ amino acids. These must be taken in as part of the diet. (essential)

Back 37

8--animals (including humans) can synthesize SOME of their own amino acids using ammonia as a nitrogen source and dietary sugars.

Front 38

formation of proteins from amino acid monomers happens through a ________ _________ reaction.

Back 38

dehydration synthesis

Front 39

polypeptide

Back 39

molecule composed of more than 3 amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Front 40

one or more polypeptide chains twisted, wound, and folded upon themselves to form a macromolecule with a definite three-dimensional shape

Back 40

proteins

Front 41

insulin's composed of 2 polypeptide chains. one has ___amino acids, the other has ___ amino acids.

Back 41

30; 21.

Front 42

hemoglobin contains ___ polypeptide chains

Back 42

4

Front 43

the function of a protein depends on:

Back 43

it's 3-dimensional shape (conformation). it allows that protein to bind specifically with another molecule.

Front 44

sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chain:

Back 44

primary structure

Front 45

structure resulting from the folding of a polypeptide chain as it formed; due to H bonds between functional groups that repeat at regular intervals along the polypeptide backbone.

Back 45

secondary structure

Front 46

determines protein structure and function:

Back 46

the sequence of amino acids

Front 47

the sequence of amino acids is determined by:

Back 47

the hereditary information (DNA)

Front 48

this structure determines the 3-dimensional shape and its biological function

Back 48

primary structure

Front 49

there are ___ common secondary structures:

Back 49

2

Front 50

Ex: protein molecules of hair and muscle tend to form helices-stretchable due to H-bonds which break and reform

Back 50

Coil (helix) secondary structure

Front 51

Ex: protein molecules in silk which form smooth, non-elastic sheets.

Back 51

Pleated sheet secondary structure

Front 52

the complex structure resulting from the folding of the secondary structure of a protein due to a variety of interactions among R groups including H bonds, ionic bonds and covalent bonds between sulfur atoms in certain R groups.

Back 52

tertiary structure

Front 53

overall 3D structure of protein molecule that consists of 2 or more polypeptide chains

Back 53

quaternary structure

Front 54

protein denaturation

Back 54

the process in which a protein unravels and loses its natural 3-dimensional shape, i.e. the secondary and/or tertiary structure of the protein is destroyed which cases the protein to lose its biological function (NOT primary structure)

Front 55

What can cause denaturation?

Back 55

excess heat, extreme pH, high salt concentration

Front 56

causes the protein to lose its biological function

Back 56

denaturation

Front 57

denaturation is often reversible unless:

Back 57

the protein precipitates from the solution. Ex: cooked egg white

Front 58

all earth environments that support life:

Back 58

biosphere

Front 59

entire array of organisms:

Back 59

community

Front 60

same species:

Back 60

population

Front 61

organism cooperation:

Back 61

organ system

Front 62

Organ--> ______--> cells -->________

Back 62

tissues; organelle

Front 63

organelle:

Back 63

specific function of a cell

Front 64

List in order from biggest to smallest: organism, population, tissues, cell, ecosystem, biosphere, organ, organelle, molecule, community, organ system.

Back 64

biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism, organ system, organ, tissues, cell, organelle, molecule

Front 65

plants and animals are _______

Back 65

eukaryotic

Front 66

bacteria are ________

Back 66

prokaryotic

Front 67

3 domains of life:

Back 67

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

Front 68

Bacteria and Archaea are:

Back 68

prokaryotes, single-celled

Front 69

evolution:

Back 69

"descent with modification"

Front 70

all chemical reactions by which cells acquire and use energy

Back 70

metabolism

Front 71

oxidation of food to produce energy (ATP)

Back 71

respiration

Front 72

production of food from Carbon Dioxide and water using light

Back 72

photosynthesis

Front 73

the process by which all living things maintain a stable internal environment

Back 73

homeostasis

Front 74

if internal environment is disrupted, the organism _____

Back 74

dies

Front 75

living things have:

Back 75

potential to reproduce

Front 76

living things transmit characteristics from parent to offspring by:

Back 76

heredity

Front 77

living things ______ and ______

Back 77

grow; develop

Front 78

Darwin's theory of evolution:

Back 78

1-individuals in a population posses a great deal of genetic variation that can be passed on to the next generation. 2-population's have potential to produce more offspring will survive. 3-have traits that make them better able to decide. 4-they survive and reproduce and pass on favored traits. This all results in a change in genetic make-up of the population.

Front 79

adaptation:

Back 79

any characteristic that increases chances of an organism surviving and producing in a particular environment

Front 80

flow of nutrients = flow of _______

Back 80

energy

Front 81

Steps of the Scientific Method:

Back 81

1-observation. 2-question. 3-hypothesis. 4-prediction. 5-controlled experiment. 6-statistical analysis. 7-reject or accept hypothesis based on statistical analysis. 8-publish results.

Front 82

tentative explanation based on known facts to account for observed phenomena

Back 82

hypothesis

Front 83

Controlled experiment =

Back 83

consists of 2 randomly selected groups. 1. experimental group-treated with respect to variable (factor). 2. control group-treated exactly the same except in one respect (variable)

Front 84

water molecules exhibit _______ and ________

Back 84

cohesion; adhesion

Front 85

cohesion:

Back 85

LIKE molecules cling together. water molecules cohere to H bonds --> surface tension

Front 86

adhesion:

Back 86

tendency of UNLIKE molecules to cling together. Water molecules adhere to polar surfaces by forming H bonds with them.

Front 87

diffusion:

Back 87

movement of water from low to high concentration

Front 88

the movement of water in veins of plants is caused by ______ and ______

Back 88

cohesion and adhesion

Front 89

water uptake --> _______ and ________ in xylem -->transpiration

Back 89

cohesion and adhesion

Front 90

water resists heat changes. true or false?

Back 90

true

Front 91

total amount of energy in a substance due to molecular motion

Back 91

heat

Front 92

measure of intensity of heat = average speed of molecules

Back 92

temperature

Front 93

______ amounts of heat are required to break H bonds in water

Back 93

large

Front 94

heat required to break H bonds in water --> increased motion of water --> ______ ______ __________

Back 94

increased water temperature

Front 95

frozen water is more dense than liquid water. true or false?

Back 95

false

Front 96

formula to find density =

Back 96

mass / volume

Front 97

water has its greatest density at ___ degrees Celsius and lowest density at ___ degrees Celsius

Back 97

4; 0

Front 98

H bonds in water constantly break and reform. true or false?

Back 98

true

Front 99

H bonds in ice create rigid open lattice which holds molecules _____

Back 99

apart

Front 100

surface ice insulates lower depths. true or false?

Back 100

true

Front 101

body fluids and cells in some insects, fish, and frogs have _______ (alcohol) which acts as an antifreeze, preventing ice formation in cell and body fluids

Back 101

glycerol

Front 102

water ionizing =

Back 102

disassociating into charged particles

Front 103

substances that causes an increase in H+ in a solution

Back 103

acid

Front 104

base

Back 104

substance that causes a decrease in H+ in a solution = increase in OH-.

Front 105

example of a base:

Back 105

NH3 (ammonia) dissolved in water. NH3 + H+ (from water) --> NH4+

Front 106

example of an acid:

Back 106

HCl dissolved in water. HCl --> H+ +Cl-

Front 107

pH scales measures....

Back 107

relative H+ and OH-, values 0-14

Front 108

pH below 7 =

Back 108

acid, higher H+ than OH-

Front 109

pH = 7

Back 109

neutral

Front 110

pH above 7 =

Back 110

base

Front 111

1 pH unit = ___-fold change in H+ (hydrogen ion concentration)

Back 111

10

Front 112

buffers =

Back 112

substances that resist changes in pH by absorbing or releasing H+ into the solution

Front 113

normal pH for blood =

Back 113

7.4. if it rises too 7.8 or below 7 = death

Front 114

example of a buffer:

Back 114

blood plasma. it contains a bicarbonate (HCO3-), the carbonic acid is the buffer (H2CO3)

Front 115

most important elements for life

Back 115

C, H, O

Front 116

chemical reaction rearrange matter, do not create or destroy. true or false?

Back 116

true

Front 117

carbon can form ___ covalent bonds and commonly forms with:

Back 117

4; C, H, O, N

Front 118

Structure of C compounds:

Back 118

C "skeleton" (varies in length), may have double bonds, can be arranged in rings, organic molecules often exist as isomers, have many properties due to types of functional groups

Front 119

true or false: functional groups are polar making compounds making them soluble in water (hydrophylic=water-loving)

Back 119

true

Front 120

most biochemical reactions involve:

Back 120

formation or breaking of C bonds and/or transfer of functional groups

Front 121

some groups of molecules attached to organic molecules are ________ and _______ but affect a molecule's molecular shape and function

Back 121

non-reactive; non-polar

Front 122

properties of organic polymers depend on ______ and _______ of monomers

Back 122

kind and arrangement

Front 123

starch is a ________ composed of sugar _______

Back 123

polymer; monomers

Front 124

2 most common biochemical reactions in living systems:

Back 124

dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

Front 125

dehydration synthesis:

Back 125

2 or more monomers form a polymer with the removal of water. 1-a molecule of water is removed per pair of monomers linked. 2-reactions require enzymes

Front 126

polymer broken down into monomer by addition of water-digestion

Back 126

hydrolysis. hydro=water, lysis=breakdown

Front 127

polymers are _____ while monomers are ______

Back 127

stored; transported

Front 128

most common elements in humans:

Back 128

oxygen (65%), hydrogen (10%), carbon (18%)

Front 129

_____% of the human body is composed of O, H, C

Back 129

93%

Front 130

carbohydrates are monomers and polymers of ______

Back 130

sugars

Front 131

cell theory:

Back 131

1-all organisms are composed of 1 or more cells. 2-cells are the basic living unit of organization. 3-all cells derive from pre-existing cells.

Front 132

all cells:

Back 132

1. bound by a cell/plasma membrane. 2. contain DNA. 3. contain cytoplasm. 4. contain ribosomes 5. cell walls 6. enzymes

Front 133

cytoplasm:

Back 133

composed of semi-fluid material, organelles (eukaryotes only) and structures

Front 134

structures on which proteins are synthesized =

Back 134

ribosomes

Front 135

structure of water molecule =

Back 135

1 oxygen atom covalently bonded with 2 hydrogen atoms, is neutral in charge, is a polar molecule (slightly negative and positive charged regions), form H bonds

Front 136

weak, sticky bond. form when slightly positive H atoms participating in polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to a slightly negative atom (O or N). much weaker than covalent bonds.

Back 136

hydrogen bond

Front 137

substance that is doing the dissolving

Back 137

solvent

Front 138

substance that is being dissolved

Back 138

solute

Front 139

solution =

Back 139

uniform mixture of 2 or more substances

Front 140

due to polarity, water is a good solvent for:

Back 140

ionic compounds, other polar molecules, large molecules with regions of negative and positive charges.

Front 141

atom or molecule that has gained or lost an electron =

Back 141

ion

Front 142

ionic bond =

Back 142

attraction between 2 ions with opposite charges. ex: NaCl + H2O --> Na++Cl-

Front 143

math formulas used to determine if you should accept the results/hypothesis whether experiments are due to chance alone or are due to experimental manipulation

Back 143

statistical analysis

Front 144

clinical trials =

Back 144

effectiveness of medical treatments

Front 145

hypothesis supported by a great deal of evidence, not a guess-always possible for revision

Back 145

theory. ex: theories of evolution and relativity

Front 146

theory which has been validated over a long period of time.

Back 146

law. ex: Mendel's laws of genetics

Front 147

monosaccharides =

Back 147

single simple sugars composed of only one sugar molecule. ex: glucose (C6H12O6)

Front 148

structure of monosaccharides =

Back 148

generally 3-7 carbon atoms long, composed of 1 Carbon, 2 Hydrogen, and 1 Oxygen. usually contain a number of hydroxyl (-OH) functional groups and a carbonyl (-C=O) functional group attached to the carbon atoms

Front 149

_______ often form isomers. examples: glucose and fructose-generally exist as straight chains except when dissolved in cell fluids they form ring structures.

Back 149

monosaccharides

Front 150

the monomer "building block" from which cells construct more complex carbohydrates and other organic molecules

Back 150

monosaccharides

Front 151

process by which cells extract energy from organic compounds (food=ATP for use by cell)

Back 151

Cellular Respiration

Front 152

many monosaccharides are the main source of _______ for cells

Back 152

energy

Front 153

examples of hexose (composed of 6 C atoms) monosaccharides: _________ and ________

Back 153

glucose and fructose

Front 154

common form of sugar in the blood

Back 154

glucose

Front 155

used in honey and as a sweetener in pop

Back 155

fructose

Front 156

two monosaccharides covalently bonded together =

Back 156

disaccharides

Front 157

disaccharides are formed when two hexose (6C) monosaccharide isomers are bonded by ____________ __________ reactions

Back 157

dehydration synthesis

Front 158

breakdown (digestion) of disaccharides back to their monosaccharide monomers is caused by ________ reactions

Back 158

hydrolysis

Front 159

examples of disaccharides composed of 2 hexose (6C) monosaccharides: _______ and _______

Back 159

sucrose; lactose

Front 160

sucrose =

Back 160

table sugar. = glucose and fructose. in plants, transported downward from leaves to cells through the PHLOEM.

Front 161

in the phloem (inside cells), ________ is synthesized into _______ for ________ and/or _________ --> respiration --> energy for plants

Back 161

sucrose; starch; storage; digestion

Front 162

in sugar maple trees, sucrose moves ______ via ________ _______in the spring

Back 162

upward; xylem vessels

Front 163

glucose + galactose =

Back 163

lactose

Front 164

lactose =

Back 164

primary sugar in milk. Human digestion of lactose breaks it down into glucose and galactate.

Front 165

____% of human population are lactose intolerant after infancy

Back 165

85

Front 166

the gene located on chromosome #__ is responsible for controlling production of lactose being to shut down after ________

Back 166

2; infancy

Front 167

symptoms of lactose intolerance:

Back 167

diarrhea, cramps, bloating, etc.

Front 168

glucose + glucose =

Back 168

maltose

Front 169

maltose is _________ during ________ --> glucose --> energy for growth

Back 169

hydrolyzed; germination

Front 170

beer brewing:

Back 170

yeast hydrolyze maltose stored in seeds --> glucose --> respiration --> energy + ethanol + carbon dioxide

Front 171

more than two monosaccharides bonded together =

Back 171

polysaccharides

Front 172

cellulose, starch, glycogen and chitin are all composed of glucose monomers and are examples of _________

Back 172

polysaccharides

Front 173

all monomer subunits are _______

Back 173

glucose

Front 174

cellulose:

Back 174

1) most abundant organic compound on earth. 2) humans and most other animals are unable to digest it. 3) structural component in plant cells = wood in trees

Front 175

cellulose can be digested by:

Back 175

Some free-living species of bacteria, certain protozoa living symbiotically in the gut of a termite (simple sugars are used as food by both the termite and protozoa), and protozoa and bacteria in rumen (fermentation vats) of cows

Front 176

________ synthesized in chloroplasts and is stored in the plants leaf, stem, and root cells

Back 176

starch

Front 177

stored _____ in plant cells -->(hydrolysis)-->sucrose -->(hydrolysis)-->glucose-->(respiration)-->energy

Back 177

starch

Front 178

starch in corn kernels hydrolyzed using HCl-->glucose. some is chemically converted (using enzymes) to fructose (50% glucose + 50% fructose)

Back 178

High Fructose Corn Syrup

Front 179

controversy over High Fructose Corn Syrup possibly causing obesity led to the replacement of HFCS with ________

Back 179

sucrose

Front 180

when the blood ______ is low: _______ in the liver is hydrolyzed --> glucose --> transported to cells needing energy (ATP)

Back 180

glucose; glycogen

Front 181

blood glucose levels are regulated by _______

Back 181

insulin

Front 182

glycogen:

Back 182

storage carb. in certain animal tissues (in humans, primarily in the liver).

Front 183

complex carbs (polysac) in food digested --> glucose --> combined in liver -->_________ ___ _______

Back 183

glycogen for storage

Front 184

exoskeletons:

Back 184

protect organs and tissues, prevent water loss, provide attachment for muscles, prevent infection by bacteria and fungi

Front 185

structural component of insect exoskeletons:

Back 185

chitin

Front 186

chitin is composed of:

Back 186

glucose monomers and nitrogen

Front 187

why must insect larvae and adults shed their exoskeleton?

Back 187

to grow = molting (ecolysis)

Front 188

traits inherited as units (genes) present in pairs on homologous chromosomes =

Back 188

characteristics

Front 189

alternate forms of gene controlling for one trait =

Back 189

alleles

Front 190

alleles occupy the same ______ (position) on homologous chromosomes and are separated from each other during meiosis

Back 190

locus

Front 191

having 2 identical alleles at a locus =

Back 191

homozygous

Front 192

heterozygous =

Back 192

having 2 different alleles at each gene locus

Front 193

when heterozygous, an allele whose expression masks the expression of its partner. expressed in capital letters.

Back 193

Dominant allele

Front 194

when heterozygous, an allele whose expression is fully or partially masked by its partner. expressed in small letters.

Back 194

recessive allele

Front 195

one is homozygous dominant for a trait when...

Back 195

they have 2 dominant alleles for a trait-each on a separate chromosome

Front 196

one is homozygous recessive for a trait when...

Back 196

they have 2 recessive alleles for a trait

Front 197

individual's observable traits (ex: hair color, eye color, ability to metabolize milk, etc)

Back 197

phenotype

Front 198

genotype =

Back 198

types of genes present in a cell

Front 199

cross (mating) involving one trait =

Back 199

monohybrid cross

Front 200

dihybrid cross =

Back 200

cross involving 2 traits

Front 201

neither allele for a trait masks the presence of other alleles. phenotypes of heterozygote are ___________ between phenotype of the homozygote in __________ _________

Back 201

intermediate; incomplete dominance

Front 202

hypercholesterolemia =

Back 202

genetic disease in humans. phenotype: very high LDL cholesterol levels in blood

Front 203

when one's cholesterol genotype is HH, their phenotype is....

Back 203

normal # of LDL receptors on cell surface = normal LDL cholesterol levels

Front 204

what is the phenotype of a person with the cholesterol genotype of Hh...

Back 204

a few receptors present on the cell surface = mild disorder

Front 205

what is the phenotype of a person with the cholesterol genotype of hh...

Back 205

NO LDL receptors on the cell surfaces. This individual suffers from hypercholesterolemia

Front 206

genes located on at least one sex chromosome =

Back 206

sex-linked genes

Front 207

in humans, most genes are located on the __ chromosome; not the ___ chromosome

Back 207

X; Y

Front 208

how is hemophilia "A" controlled?

Back 208

by injecting normal blood clotting proteins

Front 209

what is hemophilia "A"?

Back 209

group of diseases that causes abnormal blood clotting, caused by a recessive gene on X chromosomes. very rare.

Front 210

single trait in individual controlled by more than one pair of genes located on the same OR different chromosomes (ex: human height or skin color) =

Back 210

polygenic inheritance

Front 211

human skin color is controlled by ___-___ gene pairs

Back 211

3;4

Front 212

pleiotropy =

Back 212

one gene has multiple effects on phenotype of an organism. ex: sickle cell anemia

Front 213

sickle cell anemia is caused by:

Back 213

a recessive gene that codes for production of defective hemoglobin in RBCs. when oxygen is low, defective hemoglobin crystalizes in RBCs -->sickle-shaped RBCs

Front 214

treatment of sickle cell anemia:

Back 214

blood transfusions to relieve symptoms, no cure yet. few live to reproductive age.

Front 215

sickle cell anemia is most common in the ________ ________ population (__% are heterozygous, ____% have the disease)

Back 215

African American; 9; 0.2

Front 216

ribosomes are found where?

Back 216

either in rough ER or free-floating cytoplasm

Front 217

function of the mitochondrion:

Back 217

site of aerobic cellular respiration=oxygen-requiring biochemical reactions in which energy rich organic molecules break down --> ATP

Front 218

structure of the mitochondrion:

Back 218

1-5 micrometers long. enclosed by 2 membranes. has central space called matrix, and space between inner and outer membranes, contain mDNA and ribosomes

Front 219

the inner membrane of the mitochondrion is infolded forming ______ which makes more surface area for the biochemical reactions

Back 219

cristae

Front 220

true or false: mitochondria divide when the cell divides.

Back 220

true

Front 221

describe theory or symbiotic origin of mitochondria:

Back 221

atmosphere increased (O2) due primarily to increase in # of cyanobacteria. large anaerobic eukaryotic cells engulf the smaller, aerobic bacteria. over time, the aerobic symbiotic bacteria "became" mitochondria

Front 222

bacteria are ________ able to produce large amounts of energy via ________ respiration

Back 222

prokaryotes; aerobic

Front 223

network of membranes divide cytoplasm into compartments and channels:

Back 223

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Front 224

ER with ribosomes attached, is continuous with outer membrane nuclear envelope, look like flattened sacs.

Back 224

rough ER

Front 225

group of organelles which aid in production, packaging and transport of organic molecules in cells =

Back 225

endomembrane system

Front 226

endomembrane system includes:

Back 226

Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies (apparatus), and lysosomes

Front 227

rough ER is used to:

Back 227

synthesize pieces of biological membranes using protein productions by ribosomes of the rough ER and phospholipids produced in smooth ER. Also, to produce proteins secreted by certain cells (ex: antibodies, digestive enzymes)

Front 228

steps in synthesizing and packaging of secretory proteins by rough ER:

Back 228

1-DNA in nucleus codes for mRNA, leaves nucleus by nuclear pores and attach to ribosomes of RER. 2-mRNA directs protein synthesis on RER, ribosomes and proteins moved into RER. 3-proteins packages into small sacs (transport vesicles) which bud from RER.

Front 229

where do RER transport vesicles containing secretory proteins generally move to?

Back 229

Golgi bodies-for further processing of the protein

Front 230

Golgi transport vesicles transport the final 'mature' secretory protein to.....

Back 230

the cell membrane

Front 231

Golgi transport vesicles fuse with the ____ _________ and are dumped outside (secreted)by exocytosis

Back 231

cell membrane

Front 232

characteristics of smooth ER:

Back 232

lack ribosomes, interconnected tubes (continuous with rough ER), large # of enzymes embedded in its membrane used in the synthesis and breakdown of many organic compounds

Front 233

functions of smooth ER:

Back 233

synthesize lipids including phospholipids, triglycerides (fats and oils) and steroids. 2-Its enzymes help detoxify drugs (ex: sedatives, stimulants, antibiotics) and other toxins. 3-storage of Ca+ in muscle cells.

Front 234

Golgi Bodies (Apparatus) characteristics:

Back 234

stacks of membrane-bound sacs, package, modify, and distribute materials produced in the ER, form lysosomes

Front 235

lysosomes are formed in the _____ ____ and contain _____ ______

Back 235

Golgi body; digestive enzymes

Front 236

lysosome enzymes aid in digestion of:

Back 236

1-worn out organelles. 2-food particles engulfed by cells through endocytosis. 3-lipoprotein coat of LDL cholesterol --> cholesterol for cell use.

Front 237

asbestosis:

Back 237

lung disease caused by inhaling asbestos particles

Front 238

causes of asbestosis:

Back 238

asbestos particles are engulfed by WBCs in lung tissue, then engulfed by the WBC lysosomes but cannot be digested -->leakage digest enzyme from WBC lysosomes -->lung tissue damage (=asbestosis)

Front 239

lysosomal storage disorders =

Back 239

human inherited disorders in which lysosomes lack normal functioning enzymes due to gene mutation

Front 240

lysosomes in LIVER cells lack glycogen-digesting enzymes --> build-up glycogen --> liver damage

Back 240

Pompe's disease

Front 241

lysosomes in BRAIN cells lack LIPID-digesting enzymes -->build-up of lipids --> brain damage

Back 241

Tay-Sach's disease

Front 242

membrane-bound sacs that are relatively small in animal and protest cells:

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vacuoles

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contractile vacuoles:

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regulation of water balance (osmoregulation) in certain protozoans

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network protein filaments in cytoplasm

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cytoskeleton

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true or false: cytoskeletons are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

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false, cytoskeletons are not found in prokaryotes.

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functions of the cytoskeleton:

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1-anchor organelles and some enzymes. 2-responsible for cell shape (not rigid and often changes with activity, disassembled or assembled). 3-microfilaments used in muscle contraction and cytoplasmic streaming. 4-microtubules used to move chromosomes during cell division. 5-extracellular matrix (ECM)

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composed of the contractile protein actin and found in the cytoskeleton

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microfilaments

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move chromosomes during cell division-found in the cytoskeleton

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microtubules

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ECM structure:

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composed of a network of glycoprotein filaments = protein bonded to carbohydrates

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most abundant glycoprotein in ECM =

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collagen

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functions of ECM:

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1-hold cells together in tissues. 2-protect and support cell membrane. 3-communicate between outside and inside cells

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centrioles usually occur in all ________ cells but are usually absent in ________ cells

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animal; plant

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fluid within chloroplasts where carbon dioxide bonded together --> simple sugars

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stroma

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sit of photosynthetic reactions

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chloroplasts

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chloroplast structure:

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thylakoids and stroma

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flattened sacs whose membranes are embedded with chlorophyll and other pigments which trap light energy

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thylakoids

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true or false: plastids are involved with photosynthesis.

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false

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some plastids store _______, some store _______

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starch; pigments

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large, fluid-filled sac in mature plant cells. occupies 50-90% of cell volume

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central vacuole

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central vacuole functions:

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water flows in constantly providing support, storage of sugars, proteins, etc. rich in nutrients, often contain digestive enzymes, storage of waste products often as crystals.

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as a result of water constantly flowing into the vacuole:

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turgor pressure --> vacuole pushes against the wall --> increased support

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as a defense mechanism against predators, some plants accumulate toxic substance--this found in....

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Diffenbachia (dumb cane)

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cyclosis (cytoplasmic streaming)

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movement cytoplasm, microfilaments involved. more common in plant cells than animal cells

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chromosomes pulled by __________ of spindles apparatus during cell division by ______ and ______

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microtubules; cilia; flagella

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long, hair-like extensions of cell membrane, usually few in #. contain cytoplasm surrounded by cell membrane. contain 20 flexible rod-like microtubules (9 pairs to outside + 1 central pair)

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flagella-structure is the same as cilia

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flagella and cilia movement is due to:

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movement of microtubules; requires ATP

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short, hair-like extensions of the cell membrane, usually large in # used for movement of eukaryotic cells

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cilia

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composed of 2 layers of phospholipids (hydrophilic and hydrophobic), approximately 9 nm thick.

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cell membrane

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hydrophobic phopholipid

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non-polar fatty acid-tails point inward

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hydrophilic phospholipid

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polar heads point outward forming H bonds with water

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facilitated diffusion is passive. true or false.

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true

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lyme disease is primarily carried by the ____ tick which infects rodents and deer. Also in the ____ _____ tick-occurs in SE Nebraska.

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deer; lone star

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disease that usually starts as red bull's eye rash

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lyme disease

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if untreated by the vaccine that has been developed, may lead to:

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debilitating arthritis, heart disease and nervous disorders

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photoautotrophs that produce oxygen:

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cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)

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cyanobacteria is found where?

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in water high in mineral nutrients (e.g. nitrates, phosphates). common species in NE lakes, ponds, and streams

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what happens when cyanobacteria form "blooms"

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fish die due to decrease in oxygen in water resulting in uptake of oxygen by aerobic respiring (use oxygen) bacteria and fungi during the decay of dead cyanobacteria. the cyanobacteria clogs fish gills --> death.

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some species of cyanobacteria produce poisons that affect the nervous system that lead to fish death..these are called _______

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neurotoxins

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if a large quantity is consumed by humans, can make you ill. cattle and horses are very sensitive to these (usually cause death).

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cyanobacteria neurotoxins

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some species of __________ can "fix" nitrogen in specialized cells called ___________

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cyanobacteria; heterocysts

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structure of cyanobacteria is similar to bacteria EXCEPT:

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they do not contain chloroplasts since they are prokaryotes*, cytoplasm contain specialized membranes called thylakoids where photosynthetic pigments are embedded (chlorophyll, etc.)-sites of photosynthesis

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eukaryotic animal cells are composed of:

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cell membrane=plasma membrane, nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondrion

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describe the nucleus of a eukaryotic animal cell

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contains chromosomes composed of DNA and proteins, chromatin, nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, nucleolus

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chromatin =

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uncoiled chromosomes observed when cells are not dividing -in the nucleus of eukaryotic animal cells

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the nuclear envelope in the nucleus of a eukaryotic animal cell is composed of how many membranes?

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2

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protein channels in the nuclear envelope, allows materials to move in and out of the nucleus in eukaryotic animal cells

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nuclear pores

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true or false: the nucleolus is an organelle.

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false

Front 288

region within the nucleus of a eukaryotic animal cell where components of ribosomes are synthesized (manufactured)-1 or more of these per cell

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nucleolus

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ribosomes are approximately ___ nm in eukaryotic animal cells

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20

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true or false: ribosomes in eukaryotic animal cells are not enclosed by a membrane

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true

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in eukaryotic animal cells most proteins made on ____ ribosomes function within the ________ e.g. as enzymes

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free; cytoplasm

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________ synthesize proteins for use in cell and export

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ribosomes

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most proteins synthesize on ribosomes attached to ER will be:

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1) inserted into membranes 2) packaged in certain organelles or 3) secreted from the cell

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ribosomes in eukaryotic animal cells are found in either ____ or ____ ______ _________

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RER; free-floating cytoplasm

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the _________ is the site of aerobic cellular respiration (oxygen-requiring) in eukaryotic animal cells, where energy rich organic molecules break down --> ATP

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mitochondrion

Front 296

how long is the mitochondrion in eukaryotic animal cells? and how many membranes is it enclosed by?

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1-5 micrometers long; 2 membranes

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regulate water balance (osmoregulation) in certain protozoans

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contractile vacuoles

Front 298

structures and organelles that are in eukaryotic plant cells but NOT eukaryotic animal cells:

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cell wall, plastids, large central vacuole

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the cell wall in a eukaryotic plant cell lies _______ the cell membrane, provides support for the cell, composed of _______ fibers glued together by _______, and contains plasmodesmata

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outsides; cellulose; pectin

Front 300

strand cytoplasm that connects adjacent cells through holes in the cell wall in eukaryotic plant cells =

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plasmodesmata

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plasmodesmata allows movement material between _____

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cells

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the cell membrane in eukaryotic plant cells is composed of a "....."

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mosaic of macromolecules, approximately 9 nm thick with 2 layers of phospholipids

Front 303

site of food synthesis and/or food storage =

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plastids

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sugars often attached to proteins =

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glycoproteins

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sugars often attached phospholipids =

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glycolipids

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function of cell membrane proteins:

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1) some are cell surface markers 2) some are cell surface receptors 3) some are enzymes 4) some form cell junctions where adjacent animal cells stick together 5) some help transport substance across the membrane

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cell membrane proteins that are cell surface markers = ___________ (sugar proteins) "identify" or "label" each type of cell. referred to as _, _, & _ blood type in RBCs

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glycoproteins; A; B; C

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glycoproteins are important in tissue transplants because....

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if foreign tissue is transplanted, the immune system cells "recognize" its surface markers as being "foreign" and destroy transplanted tissue = tissue rejection

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cell membrane proteins that are cell surface receptors...

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have shapes that fit shape-specific messenger molecules (ex: LDL cholesterol receptors, insulin receptors)

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specific proteins that receive chemical messengers:

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cell membrane proteins that are cell surface receptors

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messenger (e.g. hormone) binds to receptor --> triggers chain reaction via other proteins --> relay message to a molecule that performs a specific activity inside the cell

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signal transduction in cell surface receptors from cell membrane proteins

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cell surface protein enzymes:

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catalyze biochemical reactions

Front 313

some cell membrane proteins help transport substances across the membrane. true or false?

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true

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difference in concentration between 2 solutions =

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concentration gradient (slope)

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the _______ the difference between concentrations of 2 solutions, the greater the concentration gradient.

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greater

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movement of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration due to KINETIC energy of molecules =

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diffusion

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factors that affect the rate of diffusion:

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1) temperature-the higher the temp, the faster rate difference, 2) molecular size-small molecules diffuse at a faster rate than larger ones, 3) "steepness"-greater the concentration gradient between 2 solutions, the faster rate difference

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in diffusion within cells, which is the solvent and which is the solute: water, organic macromolecules (e.g. NA+, K+, Cl-)

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solvent: water. solute: organic macromolecules

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diffusion into and out of cells depends on:

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whether molecules can pass through the cell membrane

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true or false: passive transport does not require energy

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true

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in simple diffusion, molecules move between phospholipid molecules of membranes and cell membranes are freely permeable to:

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water, alcohol, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and uncharged small molecules.

Front 322

special type of diffusion where movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration is called...

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osmosis

Front 323

passive transport across cell membrane requiring the help of membrane transport proteins =

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facilitated diffusion

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in facilitated diffusion, materials move from ____ to ____ concentration

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high; low

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true or false: facilitated diffusion = passive diffusion

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true

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true or false: facilitated diffusion requires energy (ATP)

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false

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transport of materials from regions of low concentration to regions of high concentration

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active transport (AT)

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active transport requires:

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1) membrane proteins 2) energy (ATP)

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1) glucose transported out of human intestine and into blood plasma by ATP. 2) Na+ transported out of RBCs into plasma by ATP --> isotonic plasma

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examples of active transport

Front 330

organisms require anaerobic conditions and are killed by oxygen include primarily bacteria living in conditions devoid of oxygen (e.g. bacteria living deep in soil or in mud at the bottom of deep or stagnant bodies of water)

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strict anaerobes

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organisms able to produce ATP by aerobic respiration when enough oxygen is able or by anaerobic respiration if oxygen is not available. (ex: yeast, single-celled fungi, e.coli and mammalian muscle cells)

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facultative anaerobes

Front 332

in _________ _______ __________, an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from an organic substrate molecule to ADP, producing a new organic molecule and a molecule of ATP

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substrate level phosphorylation

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1 strand of a double stranded chromosome

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chromatid

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region of attachment of sister chromatid

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centromere

Front 335

chromosomes exist in __ forms. What are they?

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2; single-stranded (unreplicated) and double-stranded (replicated)

Front 336

chromosome # in gametes of animals and spores:

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N-haploid

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G1, S, and G2 are in the _________ phase of the cell cycle

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interphase