Biopsychology Final Exam Breedlove 2013

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The human brain contains

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100 to 150 billion neurons

Front 2

Information is transmitted between cells across tiny gaps called

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Synapses

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An enzyme that converts testosterone into dihydrotestosterone.

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5α-reductase

Front 4

A protein that, along with myosin, mediates the contraction of muscle fibers.

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Actin

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Also called nerve impulse. The propagated electrical message of a neuron that travels along the axon to the presynaptic axon terminals.

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action potential

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The outer rind of the adrenal gland. Each of the three cellular layers of the adrenal cortex produces different hormones.

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adrenal cortex

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An endocrine gland atop the kidney.

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Adrenal gland

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The inner core of the adrenal gland. The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine.

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Adrenal medulla

Front 9

A tropic hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that controls the production and release of hormones of the adrenal cortex.

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adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Front 10

The creation of new neurons in the brain of an adult.

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adult neurogenesis

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A disorder of mood, such as depression or bipolar disorder.

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affective disorder

Front 12

In reference to an axon, carrying nerve impulses from a sensory organ to the central nervous system, or from one region to another region of interest.

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afferent

Front 13

The positive or negative change in membrane potential that may follow an action potential.

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afterpotential

Front 14

The inability to recognize objects, despite being able to describe them in terms of form and color; may occur after localized brain damage.

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agnosia

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A molecule, usually a drug, that binds a receptor molecule and initiates a response like that of another molecule, usually a neurotransmitter.

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agonist

Front 16

The inability to write.

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agraphia

Front 17

A mineralocorticoid hormone, secreted by the adrenal cortex, that induces the kidneys to conserve sodium ions.

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aldosterone

Front 18

The fact that the amplitude of the action potential is independent of the magnitude of the stimulus.

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all-or-none property

Front 19

The process of focusing by the ciliary muscles and the lens to form a sharp image on the retina.

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accommodation

Front 20

Specialized retinal cells that contact both the bipolar cells and the ganglion cells, and are especially significant in inhibitory interactions within the retina.

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amacrine cells

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Reduced visual acuity that is not caused by optical or retinal impairments.

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amblyopia

Front 22

An impairment in the direction, extent, and rate of muscular movement.

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ataxia

Front 23

A class of interneurons of the retina that receive information from rods and cones and pass the information to retinal ganglion cells.

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bipolar cells

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The portion of the visual field from which light falls on the optic disc. Because there are no receptors in this region, light striking it cannot be seen.

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blind spot

Front 25

One of three basic dimensions of light perception, varying from dark to light.

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brightness

Front 26

One of the muscles that controls the shape of the lens inside the eye, focusing an image on the retina.

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ciliary muscle

Front 27

A cell in the visual cortex that responds best to a bar of a particular size and orientation anywhere within a particular area of the visual field.

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complex cortical cell

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A class of photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision.

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cones

Front 29

The transparent outer layer of the eye, whose curvature is fixed. It bends light rays and is primarily responsible for forming the image on the retina.

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cornea

Front 30

One of the muscles attached to the eyeball that control its position and movements.

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extraocular muscle

Front 31

Visual cortex outside of the primary visual (striate) cortex.

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extrastriate cortex

Front 32

The central portion of the retina, packed with the most photoreceptors and therefore the center of our gaze.

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fovea

Front 33

A class of cells in the retina whose axons form the optic nerve.

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ganglion cells

Front 34

Specialized retinal cells that contact both the receptor cells and the bipolar cells.

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horizontal cells

Front 35

One of three basic dimensions of light perception, varying around the color circle through blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.

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hue

Front 36

The part of the thalamus that receives information from the optic tract and sends it to visual areas in the occipital cortex.

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lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

Front 37

A structure in the eye that helps focus an image on the retina.

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lens

Front 38

Also called visual cortex. The cortex of the occipital lobe of the brain.

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occipital cortex

Front 39

A region of cortex in which one eye or the other provides a greater degree of synaptic input.

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ocular dominance column

Front 40

A retinal ganglion cell that is activated when light is presented to the periphery, rather than the center, of the cell’s receptive field.

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off-center ganglion cell

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The point at which the two optic nerves meet.

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optic chiasm

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Cranial nerve II; the collection of ganglion cell axons that extend from the retina to the optic chiasm.

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optic nerve

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Axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus that terminate in the primary visual areas of the occipital cortex.

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optic radiation

Front 44

The axons of retinal ganglion cells after they have passed the optic chiasm; most terminate in the lateral geniculate nucleus.

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optic tract

Front 45

Also called adrenal steroids. A class of steroid hormones that are secreted by the adrenal cortex.

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adrenocorticoids

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A tropic hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that controls the production and release of hormones of the adrenal cortex.

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adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Front 47

A mineralocorticoid hormone, secreted by the adrenal cortex, that induces the kidneys to conserve sodium ions.

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aldosterone

Front 48

Also called monoamine hormones. A class of hormones, each composed of a single amino acid that has been modified into a related molecule, such as melatonin or epinephrine.

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amine hormones

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The chief sex hormone secreted by the human adrenal cortex.

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androstenedione

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The front division of the pituitary gland; secretes tropic hormones.

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anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis

Front 51

Also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH). A peptide hormone from the posterior pituitary that promotes water conservation.

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arginine vasopressin (AVP) or vasopressin

Front 52

A glucocorticoid stress hormone of the adrenal cortex.

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cortisol

Front 53

A second messenger activated in target cells in response to synaptic or hormonal stimulation.

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cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP, or cAMP)

Front 54

A compound that acts both as a hormone (secreted by the adrenal medulla under the control of the sympathetic nervous system) and as a synaptic transmitter.

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epinephrine or adrenaline

Front 55

A gonadotropin, named for its actions on ovarian follicles.

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follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Front 56

A class of steroid hormones, released by the adrenal cortex, that affect carbohydrate metabolism and inflammation.

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glucocorticoids

Front 57

A hypothalamic peptide hormone that reduces gonadotropin secretion by inhibiting the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone.

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gonadotropin-inhibiting hormone (GnIH)

Front 58

A gonadotropin, named for its stimulatory effects on the ovarian corpora lutea.

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luteinizing hormone (LH)

Front 59

An amine hormone that is released by the pineal gland.

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melatonin

Front 60

The inability to recognize objects, despite being able to describe them in terms of form and color; may occur after localized brain damage.

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agnosia

Front 61

A brain region in which strokes can lead to word blindness.

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angular gyrus

Front 62

The inability to name persons or objects readily.

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anomia

Front 63

An impairment in language understanding and/or production that is caused by brain injury.

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aphasia

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A tract connecting Wernicke’s speech area to Broca’s speech area.

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arcuate fasciculus

Front 65

The inability to recognize objects by touching and feeling them.

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astereognosis

Front 66

A region of the frontal lobe of the brain that is involved in the production of speech.

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Broca’s area

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Also called dementia pugilistica or punch-drunk. The dementia that develops in boxers; it is especially prominent in successful boxers because they participate in more bouts.

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chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)

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An impairment in the repetition of words and sentences.

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conduction aphasia

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The final stage of birdsong formation, in which fully formed adult song is achieved.

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crystallization

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A reading disorder attributed to brain impairment. Acquired dyslexia occurs as a result of injury or disease. Developmental dyslexia is associated with brain abnormalities present from birth.

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dyslexia

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A language impairment characterized by fluent, meaningless speech and little language comprehension; related to damage in Wernicke’s area.

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fluent aphasia or Wernicke's aphasia

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Weakness of one side of the body.

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hemiparesis

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Partial paralysis involving one side of the body.

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hemiplegia

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Talking with considerable effort, short sentences, and the absence of the usual melodic character of conversational speech.

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nonfluent speech

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A glutamate receptor that also binds the glutamate agonist AMPA.

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AMPA receptor

Front 76

The inability to form new memories beginning with the onset of a disorder.

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anterograde amnesia

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A type of learning in which an association is formed between two stimuli or between a stimulus and a response; includes both classical and instrumental conditioning.

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associative learning

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A protein that is activated by cyclic AMP (cAMP) so that it now binds the promoter region of several genes involved in neural plasticity.

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cAMP responsive element–binding protein (CREB)

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A type of associative learning in which an originally neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS)—through pairing with another stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) that elicits a particular response—acquires the power to elicit that response when presented alone. A response elicited by the US is called an unconditioned response (UR); a response elicited by the CS alone is called a conditioned response (CR).

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classical conditioning

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To fill in a gap in memory with a falsification; often seen in Korsakoff’s syndrome.

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confabulate

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A strip of gray matter in the hippocampal formation.

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dentate gyrus

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A stage of memory formation in which the information entering sensory channels is passed into short-term memory.

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encoding

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A form of nonassociative learning in which an organism becomes less responsive following repeated presentations of a stimulus.

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habituation

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A synapse that is strengthened when it successfully drives the postsynaptic cell.

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Hebbian synapse

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A medial temporal lobe structure that is important for learning and memory.

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hippocampus

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A very brief type of memory that stores the sensory impression of a scene.

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iconic memory

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A memory disorder, related to a thiamine deficiency, that is generally associated with chronic alcoholism.

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Korsakoff’s syndrome

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A stable and enduring increase in the effectiveness of synapses following repeated strong stimulation.

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

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The ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment.

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neuroplasticity or neural plasticity

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A glutamate receptor that also binds the glutamate agonist NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate), and that is both ligand-gated and voltage sensitive.

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NMDA receptor

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A patient who, because of damage to medial temporal lobe structures, was unable to encode new declarative memories. Upon his death we learned his name was Henry Molaison.

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patient H.M.

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A neuron within the hippocampus that selectively fires when the animal is in a particular location.

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place cell

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Difficulty in retrieving memories formed before the onset of amnesia.

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retrograde amnesia

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A neurotransmitter produced and released by parasympathetic postganglionic neurons by motoneurons, and by neurons throughout the brain.

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acetylcholine (ACh)

Front 95

In the context of neural transmission, a neuromodulator that alters synaptic activity.

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adenosine

Front 96

A naturally occurring steroid that modulates GABA receptor activity in much the same way that benzodiazepine anxiolytics do.

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allopregnanolone

Front 97

A molecule that resembles the structure of the catecholamine transmitters and enhances their activity.

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amphetamine

Front 98

A molecule, usually a drug, that interferes with or prevents the action of a transmitter.

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antagonist

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A class of substances that are used to combat anxiety.

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anxiolytics

Front 100

A class of antianxiety drugs that bind to sites on GABAA receptors.

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benzodiazepine agonists

Front 101

The mechanisms that make the movement of substances from blood vessels into brain cells more difficult than exchanges in other body organs, thus affording the brain greater protection from exposure to some substances found in the blood.

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blood-brain barrier

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A class of monoamines that serve as neurotransmitters, including dopamine and norepinephrine.

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catecholamines

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Referring to cells that use acetylcholine as their synaptic transmitter.

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cholinergic

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A substance that directly competes with the endogenous ligand for the same binding site on a receptor molecule.

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competitive ligand

Front 105

A monoamine transmitter found in the midbrain—especially the substantia nigra—and basal forebrain.

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dopamine (DA)

Front 106

A compensatory decrease in receptor availability at the synapses of a neuron.

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down-regulation

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One of three kinds of endogenous opioids.

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dynorphins

Front 108

Produced inside the body.

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endogenous

Front 109

One of three kinds of endogenous opioids.

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endorphins

Front 110

The property by which neurons die when overstimulated, as with large amounts of glutamate.

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excitotoxicity

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Arising from outside the body.

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exogenous

Front 112

A widely distributed amino acid transmitter, and the main inhibitory transmitter in the mammalian nervous system.

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gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Front 113

A class of monoamines that serve as neurotransmitters, including serotonin and melatonin.

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indoleamines

Front 114

A region of cortex lying below the surface, within the lateral sulcus, of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes.

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insula

Front 115

A receptor protein that includes an ion channel that is opened when the receptor is bound by an agonist.

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ionotropic receptor

Front 116

A substance that binds to receptor molecules, such as those at the surface of the cell.

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ligand

Front 117

Literally, “blue spot.” A small nucleus in the brainstem whose neurons produce norepinephrine and modulate large areas of the forebrain.

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locus coeruleus

Front 118

A set of dopaminergic axons arising in the midbrain and innervating the limbic system and cortex.

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mesolimbocortical pathway

Front 119

A set of dopaminergic axons arising from the midbrain and innervating the basal ganglia, including those from the substantia nigra to the striatum.

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mesostriatal pathway

Front 120

A substance that influences the activity of synaptic transmitters.

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neuromodulator

Front 121

Referring to cholinergic receptors that respond to nicotine as well as to acetylcholine.

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nicotinic

Front 122

A drug that affects a transmitter receptor while binding at a site other than that bound by the endogenous ligand.

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noncompetitive ligand

Front 123

Referring to systems using norepinephrine (noradrenaline) as a transmitter.

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noradrenergic

Front 124

A region of the forebrain that receives dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area.

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nucleus accumbens

Front 125

A string of nuclei in the midline of the midbrain and brainstem that contain most of the serotonergic neurons of the brain.

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raphe nuclei

Front 126

Literally, “black spot.” A group of pigmented neurons in the midbrain that provides dopaminergic projections to areas of the forebrain, especially the basal ganglia.

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substantia nigra

Front 127

A portion of the midbrain that projects dopaminergic fibers to the nucleus accumbens.

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ventral tegmental area (VTA)

Front 128

A brief period of complete insensitivity to stimuli.

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absolute refractory phase

Front 129

The propagated electrical message of a neuron that travels along the axon to the presynaptic axon terminals.

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action potential

Front 130

A toxin, produced by poison arrow frogs, that selectively interferes with Na+ channels.

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batrachotoxin

Front 131

Also called evoked potential. Averaged EEG recordings measuring brain responses to repeated presentations of a stimulus. Components of the ERP tend to be reliable because the background noise of the cortex has been averaged out.

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event-related potential (ERP)

Front 132

The process by which released synaptic transmitter molecules are taken up and reused by the presynaptic neuron, thus stopping synaptic activity.

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reuptake

Front 133

A period of reduced sensitivity during which only strong stimulation produces an action potential.

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relative refractory phase

Front 134

The analysis of a complex pattern into the sum of sine waves.

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Fourier analysis

Front 135

Nuclei in the thalamus that receive input from the inferior colliculi and send output to the auditory cortex.

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medial geniculate nuclei

Front 136

A structure in the inner ear that lies on the basilar membrane of the cochlea and contains the hair cells and terminations of the auditory nerve.

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organ of Corti

Front 137

A theory of frequency discrimination stating that pitch perception depends on the place of maximal displacement of the basilar membrane produced by a sound.

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place theory

Front 138

Brainstem nuclei that receive information from the vestibular organs through cranial nerve VIII (the vestibulocochlear nerve).

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vestibular nuclei

Front 139

Cranial nerve VIII, which runs from the cochlea to the brainstem auditory nuclei.

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vestibulocochlear nerve

Front 140

A collection of specialized receptor cells, near to but separate from the olfactory epithelium, that detect pheromones and send electrical signals to the accessory olfactory bulb in the brain.

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vomeronasal organ (VNO)

Front 141

Also called tympanic canal. One of three principal canals running along the length of the cochlea.

Back 141

scala tympani

Front 142

The propensity of an animal that has appeared sexually satiated with a present partner to resume sexual activity when provided with a novel partner.

Back 142

Coolidge effect

Front 143

The 5α-reduced metabolite of testosterone; a potent androgen that is principally responsible for the masculinization of the external genitalia in mammalian sexual differentiation.

Back 143

dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

Front 144

A female receptive posture in quadrupeds in which the hindquarter is raised and the tail is turned to one side, facilitating intromission by the male.

Back 144

lordosis

Front 145

A portion of the amygdala that receives olfactory and pheromonal information.

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medial amygdala

Front 146

A region of the brainstem reticular formation implicated in sleep and modulation of spinal reflexes.

Back 146

paragigantocellular nucleus (PGN)

Front 147

A hypothalamic region involved in eating and sexual behaviors.

Back 147

ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

Front 148

A collection of specialized receptor cells, near to but separate from the olfactory epithelium, that detect pheromones and send electrical signals to the accessory olfactory bulb in the brain.

Back 148

vomeronasal organ (VNO)

Front 149

A mineralocorticoid hormone, secreted by the adrenal cortex, that promotes conservation of sodium by the kidneys.

Back 149

aldosterone

Front 150

An arc-shaped hypothalamic nucleus implicated in appetite control.

Back 150

arcuate nucleus

Front 151

A peptide hormone that is released by the gut after ingestion of food high in protein and/or fat.

Back 151

cholecystokinin (CCK)

Front 152

An animal whose body temperature is regulated by, and whose heat comes mainly from, the environment. Examples include snakes and bees.

Back 152

ectotherm

Front 153

Excessive eating.

Back 153

hyperphagia

Front 154

A hypothalamic region involved in eating and sexual behaviors.

Back 154

ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

Front 155

The process of synchronizing a biological rhythm to an environmental stimulus.

Back 155

entrainment

Front 156

The projection of retinal ganglion cells to the suprachiasmatic nuclei.

Back 156

retinohypothalamic pathway

Front 157

The slowest type of EEG wave, characteristic of stages 3 and 4 slow-wave sleep.

Back 157

delta wave

Front 158

A loosely defined, widespread group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network. These nuclei are implicated in emotions.

Back 158

limbic system

Front 159

The study of the immune system and its interaction with the nervous system and behavior.

Back 159

psychoneuroimmunology

Front 160

A disorder, usually caused by viral infection, in which the facial nerve on one side stops conducting action potentials, resulting in paralysis on one side of the face.

Back 160

Bell’s palsy

Front 161

A protein that induces the proliferation of other cells, as in the immune system.

Back 161

cytokine

Front 162

A skin receptor cell type that detects light touch.

Back 162

Meissner's corpuscle

Front 163

An immediate early gene commonly used to identify activated neurons.

Back 163

c-fos

Front 164

A brainstem structure related to motor control.

Back 164

red nucleus

Front 165

The branch of a spinal nerve, arising from the ventral horn of the spinal cord, that carries motor messages from the spinal cord to the peripheral nervous system.

Back 165

ventral root

Front 166

An extensive region of the brainstem (extending from the medulla through the thalamus) that is involved in arousal (waking).

Back 166

reticular formation

Front 167

A region of the brainstem reticular formation implicated in sleep and modulation of spinal reflexes.

Back 167

Paragigantocellular Nucleus (PGN)

Front 168

A gene on the Y chromosome that directs the developing gonads to become testes.

Back 168

SRY Gene
Sex-determining Region on the Y chromosome (SRY)

Front 169

wolffian duct

Back 169

A duct system in the embryo that will develop into male structures (epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles).

Front 170

mullerian duct

Back 170

This will develop into female structures in the embryo which are the fallopian tubes, uterus, and upper vagina.

Front 171

sensitive period

Back 171

The period in development in which an organism can be permanently altered by a particular experience.

Front 172

Fatty insulation around axons.

Back 172

Myelin

Front 173

What is Myelin made of?

Back 173

Glial cells

Front 174

What does Myelin do?

Back 174

Improves the speed of conduction of nerve impulses.

Front 175

What is the input zone of a nerve cell?

Back 175

Dendrite

Front 176

What are a group of axons traveling together within the brain?

Back 176

Tract

Front 177

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials differ from excitatory postsynaptic potentials most significantly in their:

Back 177

Direction of membrane polarization

Front 178

Event-related potentials are particularly useful for diagnosing problems with _____.

Back 178

hearing

Front 179

Vagus nerve releases acetycholine which__________heart rate.

Back 179

decreases

Front 180

Complex psychological processes have been related to which measure in event-related potentials?

Back 180

Long-latency components

Front 181

The numbers of some receptors found in the brain may vary during the day by:

Back 181

50%

Front 182

When the minimum criteria for substance dependence have not been met, but there is evidence of maladaptive patterns of use that persists for at least one month, the diagnosis is:

Back 182

Substance abuse

Front 183

One novel approach to the treatment of drug abuse involves the use of _____ directed against drug molecules, resulting in a reduction in the concentration of the drug in the blood.

Back 183

Antibodies

Front 184

A major site of origin of projections using the neurotransmitter serotonin is the:

Back 184

Raphe nucleus

Front 185

The major factor that determines how many motoneurons will die during normal development is:

Back 185

Target size

Front 186

A prominent anatomical change in Alzheimer’s disease that can be seen without a microscope is widespread cortical _____.

Back 186

atrophy

Front 187

A particular gene of interest may be selectively altered or disrupted through the technique called _____.

Back 187

site-directed mutagenesis

Front 188

Which of the following portions of the body are represented most medially in the somatosensory cortex?

Back 188

legs

Front 189

Involves the use of numerous receptors, each of which is sensitive to only one part of the continuum of stimulus intensities.

Back 189

Range fractionation

Front 190

Phantom limb pain is an example of _____ pain.

Back 190

neuropathic

Front 191

Electrical message of a neuron that travels along the axon toward the presynaptic axon terminals.

Back 191

action potential

Front 192

Site of termination of the optic tract

Back 192

Lateral geniculate nucleus

Front 193

Carries axons of retinal ganglion cells

Back 193

Optic tract

Front 194

Amine: Quaternary Amine

Back 194

Acetylcholine(ACh)

Front 195

Amine: Monoamines

Back 195

Catecholamines; noreepinephrine(NE), epinephrine(adrenaline), dopamine(DA)

Indoleamines; serotonin (5HT), melatonin

Front 196

Amino Acids

Back 196

GABA, glutamate, glycine, histamine

Front 197

Neuropeptides: Opiod Peptides

Back 197

Enkephaline: met-enkephalin, leu-enkephalin

Endorphine: B-endorphin

Dynorphines: dynorphine A

Front 198

Other Neuropeptides

Back 198

Oxytocin, substance P, cholecystokinin(CCK), vasopressin, neuropeptide Y (NPY), hypothalamic releasing hormones,

Front 199

Gases

Back 199

Nitric Oxide, Carbon Monoxide

Front 200

Neurocrine

Back 200

Referring to secretory functions of neurons: synaptic transmission.

Front 201

Paracrine

Back 201

Cellular communication in which a chemical signal diffuses to nearby target cells through the intermediate extracellular space.

Front 202

Autocrine

Back 202

A signal that is secreted by a cell into its environment and that feeds back to the same cell.

Front 203

Allomone

Back 203

Chemical signal that is released outside the body by one species and affects the behavior of other species.

Front 204

Properties of Hormones

Back 204

1. Work in a gradual fashion
2. Act by changing the intensity
3. Increase probability of evoked behavior
4. Influenced by environment
5. Has multiple effects
6. Produced in small amounts, in bursts
7. Vary throughout the day
8. Effects of one hormone can markedly changed by the actions of another hormone.
9. Functions can vary across species, structure of given hormone is similar in all vertebrates.
10. Can only affect cells possessing receptor proteins that recognize the hormone and alter its cell function.

Front 205

Infundibulum(Pituitary Stalk)

Back 205

Thin piece of tissue that connects the Pituitary Gland to the Hypothalmus.

Front 206

Pituitary Gland(hypophysis)

Back 206

Endocrine gland located in a socket at the base of the skull.

Front 207

kisspeptin

Back 207

Hypothalamic peptide hormone that increases gonadotropin secretion by facilitating the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone

Front 208

Pineal Gland

Back 208

Resides in the brain midline, releases melatonin.

Front 209

notochord

Back 209

Midline structure arising early in the embryonic development of vertebrates

Front 210

Diablo

Back 210

Protein released by the mitochondria in response to high calcium levels, activates apoptosis(surplus cells die)