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56 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

What is localisation of function?

- different areas of the brain responsible for


different behaviours/processes/activities

What is the lateralisation of function in the brain?

- physical/psychological functions mainly by one hemisphere


- left side controlled by right hemisphere


- right side controlled by left hemisphere

What is the cerebral cortex?

- outer layer of both hemispheres



What are the four lobes of each hemisphere?

-Occipital – vision


- Parietal – higher senses and language functions -Frontal – reasoning, problem solving, judgement and creativity


- Temporal – perception, hearing , memory and meaning.

What is the motor area?

- back of frontal lobes


- voluntary movement in opposite side of body


- damage=lose control of fine movement

What is the somatosensory area?

- front of parietal lobes


- where sensory info from skin is represented


- more area devoted=more sensitivity

What is the central sulcus?

- the valley which separates the motor and


somatosensory areas

What is the visual area?

- in occipital lobes at back of brain


- info from right visual field to left visual cortex


- damage to left hemisphere=blindless in right visual field of both eyes

What is the auditory area?

- in temporal lobes


- analyse speech info


- damage=hearing loss


- damage to specific area=affect ability to


comprehend language

What did Broca find about the localisation of language?

- identified small area of left frontal lobe=speech production


- damage=slow, laborious, lack frequency


- Broca's area

What did Wernicke find about Wernicke's area?

- area in left temporal lobe=language


comprehension


- patients difficulty understanding language, not producing


- damage=produce nonsense words in speech

Evaluate localisation of function in the brain

Strengths




BRAIN SCAN EVIDENCE


-Peterson


Wernicke's area active in listening;


Broca's active in reading=diff. functions


- highly objective methods=scientific




NEUROSURGICAL EVIDENCE


Dougherty- remove parts of brain to control


behaviour


-44 OCD patient who had undergone


cingulotomy


- 32 weeks=1/3 success


- demonstrates symptoms and behaviours


associated with serious mental disorders are


localised




CASE STUDY


Phineas Gage


-pole through face/frontal lobe destroyed/personality change (calm to rude)


- frontal lobe may control mood=support localisation




Weaknesses




PLASTICITY


-brain damaged=rest of brain compensates for action


- stroke victims recover lost abilities


- more than one area control same function



What is brain plasticity?

The brain’s tendency to change and adapt


(functionally and physically) as a result of


experience and new learning.

What is functional recovery ?

A form of plasticity, the brain’s ability to


redistribute or transfer functions: following


damage through trauma.

What is synaptic pruning?

As we age, rarely used connections are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened.

What is the research into brain plasticity?

Maguire et al




- London taxi drivers had more grey matter in posterior hippocampus than matched control


- longer in job=more defined structure difference



How does the brain functionally recover after trauma?

- injury/trauma=unaffected areas adapt for


damaged (functional recovery)


- happens quickly after trauma (spontaneous


recovery)


- slows down after weeks or months =rehab therapy needed

What structural changes occur during functional recovery ?

- Axonal sprouting: nerve endings grow/


connect=new pathways


- Reformation of blood vessels


- Recruitment of homologous areas- Regions on opposite sides of the brain take on functions of damaged areas.

Evaluate plasticity and functional recovery on the brain after trauma

Strengths




Practical application


- contributes to neurorehabilitation


- physical therapy after spontaneous recovery


- brain can't fully heal alone




Animal Studies


- Hubel/Wiesel


- sew one kitten eye shut


-analyse brain


response=visual cortex area of closed eye not idle


-continued to process info from open eye




Age and plasticity


-Bezzola


- functional plasticity reduces with age


- showed 40 hours of golf training produced neural representation of movement in ppts aged 40-60


-using fMRI researchers observed reduced motor cortex activity in the novice golfers compared to a control group suggesting more efficient neural representation after training


- neural plasticity continues throughout life span






Weaknesses




Negative plasticity


- behavioural consequences e.g long drug use=cognitive function down


- risk of dementia up


- 60-80% amputees=phantom limb


syndrome=unpleasant





What is hemispheric lateralisation?

- two hemispheres are functionally different


- specific processes/behaviours controlled by one hemisphere

What is split brain research?

- 1960s onwards studies of epileptic patients with hemispheres surgically separated


- investigate extent to which brain function is lateralised

What was Sperry's split brain study into hemispheric lateralisation?

- epileptic group had corpus callosum cut to


separate hemispheres=control seizures


- see if hemispheres performed tasks independently

What was the procedure of Sperry's split brain research?

- image/word shown in right visual field (left hemisphere) vice versa


- normal brain=corpus callosume share info


between hemispheres=complete picture


- split brain patient=info not shared

What were Sperry's key findings

What you see?


- picture shown to right visual field, could


describe


- left visual field, nothing there


- right hemisphere lacks language centres




Recognition by touch


- object shown in left visual field;could match


object from grab bag behind screen using left hand - right hemisphere


- selected closely related object




Composite words


- two words same time each visual field


- write with left hand word in left visual field - right hem- visual


- say the word in the right visual field as left hemisphere linked with language/speech




Matching faces


- right hemisphere dominant


- shown face to each visual field; asked to match from series of faces, left visual field chosen and right hemisphere ignored the faces


- composite picture, left hemisphere described, right matched

Evaluate split-brain research

Strengths



Methodology strengths


- highly standardised procedures


- one eye blindfolded;image 1/10th sec=no time to spread info to both visual fields


- well controlled procedure




Demonstrated brain lateralisation


- left hemisphere=analytic/verbal tasks


- right hemisphere=spatial/music tasks/emotion to language


- left=analyser;right=synthesiser






Weaknesses




Cant Generalise


- unusual/small sample, all had epileptic seizure history


- influence findings;some more disconnection than others




Difference in function overstated


- labelling hemispheres=oversimplifying=less clear cut


- normal brain=constant communication


performing everyday tasks


- many behaviours of one hemisphere done by other

What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

-Measures brain activity in specific areas by


detecting associated changes in blood flow


- detect radio waves from changing magnetic fields


- 3D images/helps understanding of localisation of function

What are strengths and weaknesses of fMRIs

Strengths


- doesn't rely on radiation=virtually risk-free


- non-invasive


- high resolution




Weaknesses


- expensive compared to other techniques


- poor temporal resolution


- only measures blood flow not neurone activity

What is electroencephalogram (EEG)?

- measure electrical activity in the brain via electrodes


- A record of the brain wave patterns produced by millions of neurons,


-producing characteristic patterns.

What are strengths and weaknesses of EEGs?

Strengths


- diagnose brain conditions


- contributed to understanding of sleep stages


- high temporal resolution




Weaknesses


- information too general


- can't pinpoint source of neural activity


- can't distinguish activities in different adjacent locations

What are event-related potentials (ERPs)?

- The brains electrophysiological response to a specific sensory, cognitive or motor event can be isolated through statistical analysis of EEG data



What are strengths and weaknesses of ERPs?

Strengths


- more specific measure of neural processes


- excellent temporal resolution compared to


other techniques


- used to measure cognitive functions/deficits




Weaknesses


- methodology lacks standardisation=difficult to confirm finding


- pure data=background noise/extraneous material eliminated=not always achieved

What are post-mortem examinations ?

-Correlating behaviours before death with brain structures after death.


-brains that are left after post-modern usually have some sort of disorder

What are strengths and weakness of post-mortem examinations ?

Strengths


- foundation of understanding key brain processes


- used by Broca/Wernicke


- improve medical knowledge=generate hypotheses




Weaknesses


- causation issues=damage from unrelated


trauma


- ethical issues (consent of patients)

What are biological rhythms?

Distinct patterns of changes in biological activity that conform to cyclical time periods

What are the two factors which control biological rhythms?

- endogenous pacemakers (internal clocks)


- exogenous zeitgebers (external changes)

What are circadian rhythms ?

- biological rhythm last for around 24 hours


- regulates body processes e.g. sleep/wake cycle and core body temperature

What else controls our sleep/wake cycle?

- light=important exogenous zeitgeber


- makes us drowsy at night and alert in the morning

What was Siffre's cave study on circadian rhythms ?

- spent extended time underground= to study


effects on biological rhythms


- deprived of natural light/sound


- 2 months in Southern Alps, resurfaced in


September 1962;thought it was mid-August


- endogenous pacemaker slowed to 25 hours


cycle

What was Aschoff and Wever's research into


circadian rhythms?

- participants 4 weeks in WWII bunker=no


sunlight


- all but one showed 24-25 hour circadian rhythm- natural cycle longer;entrained by exogenous zeitgebers

Evaluate circadian rhythms

Strengths




Practical Application- Shift Work


- understanding consequences of disrupting


circadian rhythm


- night workers=down concentration at 6am=


mistakes


- shift workers 3x likely develop heart disease=


adjust sleep/wake cycle


- implications=manage worker productivity




Practical app- Drug treatments


- circadian rhythms co-ordinate heart rate, digestion and hormone levels


- effects action of drugs on body;peak times when most effective


- guidelines on timing for some meds




Weaknesses




Poor control


- Siffre still had access to artificial light (lamp)=


assumed no effect


-Czeisher: Adjust circadian rhythms 22 to 28 hrs using dim light


- artificial light affected Siffre's findings




Individual differences


- sleep/wake cycle can vary in people from 13 to 65 hours


-Duffy: some prefer early rise vs some prefer opposite


- age differences in sleep/wake patterns

What is an infradian rhythm?

Frequency of less than one cycle in 24 hours, such as menstruation and seasonal affective disorder

What is the menstrual cycle? What occurs during the cycle?

- typical cycle lasts about 28 days


- oestrogen levels up=release egg;progesterone thickens womb lining


- no pregnancy=egg absorbed


- womb lining leaves body

What was McClintock's research into the


menstrual cycle?

- 29 women irregular periods


- pheromones from 9 women at different stages on cotton pad (8 hrs)


- rubbed on upper lip of 20 women


- 68% women cycles changed to match 'odour donor'

What is seasonal affective disorder? What are the possible causes?

- Depression associated with seasonal changes, usually the onset of winter and decreased darkness.


- symptoms triggered in winter months=daylight hours shorter


- hypothesised melatonin implicated


- night=pineal gland secretes melatonin until dawn (light up)


- lack of light=longer secretion=effect serotonin production

What is an ultradian rhythm?

Frequency of more than one cycle in 24 hours, such as the stages of sleep.

Describe the stages of sleep

Stage 1 and 2


- light sleep=easily woken


- beginning of sleep, brainwaves slower/rhythmic (alpha waves), then slower (theta waves) as sleep gets deeper




Stage 3 and 4


- delta waves=slower/greater amplitude


- deep sleep/slow wave sleep=difficult to wake someone




Stage 5 (REM sleep)


- body paralysed


- brain activity speeds=awake brain


- REM=rapid eye movement


- REM activity highly correlated to dreaming

Evaluate the ultradian and infradian rhythms

Strengths




Evolutionary bass of menstrual cycle


- past=advantageous to menstruate


together=pregnant together=newborns raised in group=increase survival




Evidence supporting stages of sleep


- Dement/Kleitman: 9 adult sleep patterns in lab;EEG;control effects for caffiene/alcohol


-REM highly correlated to dreaming;


-brain activity varied according to how vivid dreams were


- replicated;small sample size




Weaknesses




Methodological limitations in syncronisation studies


- confounding variables e.g. stress/diet/exercise not controlled


- patterns in synchronisation may due to chance


- small samples;self report




Animal studies


- knowledge of pheromone effect on behaviour derived from animal studies


- evidence for effect in human behaviour


speculative/inconclusive


- can't fully generalise animal study findings

What are endogenous pacemakers?

Internal body clocks that regulate many of our


biological rhythms.

What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)?

- nerve bundle in hypothalamus


- primary endogenous pacemaker of mammal


- maintains circadian rhythm e.g. sleep/wake


cycle


- nerve fibres connected to eye cross optic


chiasm to visual area of cerebral cortex


- SCN above optic chiasm=receives light info;


continues when eyes closed

What was Decoursey's animal study into the SCN?

- destroyed SCN in 30 chipmunks


- returned to natural habitat/observed for 80 days


- significant portion killed (awake when should've been asleep)

How are the pinal gland and melatonin affected by the SCN?

- SCN passes info on light to pineal gland


- night=increases melatonin production (induces sleep)

What are exogenous zeitgebers?

external cues which affect biological rhythms e.g. light on sleep/wake cycle

How does light work as an exogenous zeitgeber?

- resets SCN=maintain sleep/wake cycle


- indirect influence on hormone secretion/blood circulation

What was Campbell and Murphy's research into light as an exogenous zeitgeber?

- light detected by skin receptors when not


received by eye


- 15 participants woken diff. times


- light shone on back of knee


- deviated sleep/wake cycle up to 3 hrs-


don't necessarily rely on eyes to influence the brain

How do social cues act as an exogenous zeitgeber?

- 6 weeks=circadian rhythm;16 weeks=most


babies entrained


- influenced by parents schedules


(mealtimes/bedtimes)


- adapting to local time for eating/sleeping=beat jetlag

Evaluate endogenous pacemakers and


exogenous Zeitgebers

Strengths




Beyond the master clock


- many circadian rhythms in organs/cells (peripheral oscillators)


- highly influenced by SCN, act independently


-Damiola: change mice feed pattern alter liver cell circadian rhythm by 12 hours/SCN unaffected


- other complex influences on sleep/wake cycle




Weaknesses




Ethical issues


- cannot generalise findings from animal studies to humans


- animals exposed to harm/risk when returned to natural habitat




Methodological issues


- Campbell and Murphy study not replicated


- limited light exposure to eyes=major


confounding variable


- isolating light doesn't give insight to other


zeitgebers influence




Influence on EZ overstated


- Miles: young man blind from birth;circadian rhythm 24.9 hrs;despite social cues, sleep/wake cycle not adjusted


- occasions EZ little effect on internal rhythm




Concusion




Interactionist approach


- free-running endogenous pacemakers


exceptional circumstances


- total isolation extremely rare=lack validity


- pacemakers/zeitgebers interact