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48 Cards in this Set

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Touch etc:



Sensory reception organs (ears, eyes, skin etc.) detect and _______ to events. ________ cells convert specific ________ into _________ signals

respond; receptor; receptor; electrical

Think. This is easy.

Conversion of one form of sensory stimulus to another is....?

Sensory transduction. Sensory stimulus becomes electrical signal in the brain. If they fire continuously with no bad outcome, the brain will disregard them e.g. pressure of clothing

Easy to remember once you know :)

Some skin neurons have narrow ion channels- if these are ___________, depolarization occurs and the neuron fires

stretched!

what you do to an elastic band

Lots of neurons firing to stimulate one other:__________ __________


Sustained, repeated firing of one neuron:___________ ____________

spatial summation; temporal summation. Either is likely to be stimulating enough to cause the receiving neuron to fire

Skin consists of the _________, which is thin; the ____________, which has the most nerves and blood; and the ___________ which is where the skin is attached to the rest of the body

epidermis; dermis; hyperdermis

different types of 'dermis'

More junctions = ________ signals. Skin receptors in toes and hands are _________, stretching to the back of the neck in the _______ _________

slower; long; spinal column

Information from the right-hand side of the body will end up in the _____ hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa

left

Obvs.

Each hemisphere has a __________ _________ _________ (S1). Areas of higher sensitivity (e.g. hands) send information to larger areas of S1 than less sensitive areas (e.g. shoulders)

primary somatosensory cortex- think homunculus. Remember, toes are near genitalia = foot fetish in some people!

3 part word

The secondary somatosensory cortex maps ______ _______ of the body in overlay e.g. right leg and left leg occupy the same area of S1.

both sides

??

A ____________ is an area of skin that is mainly supplied by a single spinal nerve. If the spine is broken, it will depend ______ the break is as to the level of paralysis in these zones.

dermatome; where

If you are an expert in something practical e.g. a pianist, certain parts of the brain are larger. The brain remains adaptive in this way well into old age, and this is...?

Cortical plasticity

life in something, it's fantastic...

Remember the monkey? What happened when they chopped his finger off?



What about the one who had his fingers but they stimulated 2 of them quite a lot?

The areas on the cortical map responsible for the signals from the 2 adjacent fingers grew larger.



When they stimulated 2 fingers on the monkey who had all his fingers, the 2 corresponding areas on the cortical map grew larger and the fingers became more sensitive

You either remember or you don't!

How does phantom limb work, e.g. missing hand?

The somatosensory cortex is rearranged after the hand is lost- adjacent areas deal with the arm and face. The receptors that once responded to stimulus in the hand now responds to touch on the arms or face

The _________ _________ _________ is located along the central sulcus, which separates the _______ lobe from the _________ lobe. It is involved in control movements you make __________.

primary motor cortex; frontal; parietal; voluntarily



The primary motor cortex is mapped in a similar way to the primary somatosensory cortex, and the homunculus is very similar. These areas communicate with one another

A person with Parkinson's disease suffers degeneration of ___________-producing cells in the basal ganglia, an area of the brain associated with _________ movement and learning. This means that the condition may render the sufferer unable to ________ new skills or move voluntarily without ________ ________. They may be able to move in an ___________, however, as this is a less voluntary response

dopamine; voluntary; learn; great effort; emergency

Pain: it doesn't just ______ us, but it ________ us to do something. Pain is _________.

inform; motivate; protection

How does Congenital Insensitivity to Pain (CIP) work? (simplistically)

Touch and pain receptors feel pressure and know something is happening, but no pain is felt.



Or- the pain sensation isn't perceived, due to a mutation in the SCN9A gene. The mutation prevents sodium channels forming in nociceptors (pain receptors), impairing the transmission of the pain signal.

CIP affects 1 in _________ people; there are higher rates in regions of Pakistan and Sweden. Suffers have shown tendencies to ____-________ , to extract their own teeth, and for joint ________ and ____________ (Minde, 2006).

2 million; self-mutilate; instability; destruction



There are 2 main guys in the lecture notes- Minde and Cox, all 2006. If this is an essay question you will look like a BOSS if you reference the researchers!

CIP: Cox (2006) found sufferers had a tendency to bite of parts of their _______ before the age of ____, and may need reconstructive surgery to the __________. Cox also noted a teenage Pakistani boy who jumped off a roof, breaking both _____, and proceeded to _______ _________.

tongue; four; palate; legs; walk home

What ultimately killed the boy who walked home on his broken legs?

Walking home on the injuries caused such appalling damage that he developed blood toxicity and died.



If there's a 'why is pain important?' question, this is the sort of thing that needs a mention.

______________ are pain receptors. They come in numerous specialist varieties, and release a soup of 20-30 ______________ chemicals. These make pain receptors ___________ and _______ likely to fire

Nociceptors; inflammatory; twitchy; more

The TRPV1 receptor is a heat-activated receptor; ____________, as found in chilli peppers, binds to these receptors, creating a ________ sensation.

capsaicin; burning



If you're interested, capsaicin doesn't actually cause tissue damage if it's chili peppers we're talking about; you do get inflammation but it's thought to actually be caused by the body's response to the nerve excitement.

TRPV1 warns us of __________ rises. Chilli peppers evolved capsaicin to _________ mammals, but ________ are __________, because they are the best _________ (distributors of seeds).

temperature; discourage; birds; immune; vectors

Cool Menthol Receptor 1 (CMR1) responds to __________ temperatures; TRP2 is a ________ responder to high temperatures. They are in the same family, so very high and very low temperatures both _______.

cold; fast; burn


What is the difference between an A- delta axon and a C fibre axon?



And what is the point of this?

A-delta axons are myelinated- the signals are very quick. C fibres are not myelinated and consequently signals are slower.



If you pick up a hot oven tray, that A-delta axon sends a sharp, instant pain to cause you to drop the tray, limiting damage to your hands. The C fibres are responsible for the slower signal that causes continuous, dull pain, discouraging you from doing it again!

The periaquaductal gray (PAG) is the main centre for ______ modulation. The pain and temperature fibres of the ______________ tract send information to the PAG, causing ____________ (the body's painkillers) to be released. Opiates such as ________ lodge into pain receptors in the PAG and work by blocking _________ coming up the spine.

pain; spinothalamic; endorphins; morphine; stimulus



Pregnant women secrete a lot of endorphins in the last trimester of pregnancy, which should male labour less traumatic for both mother and baby

Hearing: ___________ system (balance)


Taste: ______________


Smell: _____________

Vestibular; gustation; olfaction

What are pinna and what do they tell you about hearing?

It's literally the visible, 'flappy' bit of the ear, and the bigger they are proportionate to the size of the animal, the better it can hear. All mammals have them

Frequency: ______/_________ pitch (cycles per second, or Hz). Animals hear the range of frequencies that __________ deems most useful for their needs.


Amplitude: ___________, loudness (dB)


Timbre: ____________ of sound quality

high/low; evolution; volume; perception



To clarify, most sounds are a mixture of frequencies, unlike a pure tone e.g. a tuning fork. Timbre is determined by a sound's complexity, so Pitbull and Kesha are very wide of the mark.

Trick question: How much louder is 100 dB than 90 dB?

Answer: It's twice as loud. Every 10 dB increase doubles the intensity.

The muscles around the __________ can ________ or __________ it as needed; in a _________ environment they will________, ____________ hearing, and vice versa.

eardrum; tighten; slacken; quiet; tighten; sharpening

When soundwaves hit the eardrum, it moves, bashing the little bones of the ear together and ultimately causing movement in the cochlea. What are the bones called?

The hammer, the anvil and the stirrup

In the cochlea, the _______ __________ is fixed and unmoving. The _________ _________ moves in response to the soundwave and this bends ________, displacing ________ and causing _________ activity.

tectorial membrane; basilar membrane; hairs; stereocilia; neural



A pic helps, grab the slides!

Why do we lose our high frequency hearing range soonest?

I


The hairs that respond to high frequencies wear out soonest. All frequencies of sound waves travel over the hairs at the outer edge of the cochlea, because the waves are faster; the signal doesn't travel far before the next one hits. Lower frequencies reach hair cells nearer the middle of the cochlea.

Stereocilia are connected by ____ ______, which each block an ion channel. As the stereocilia bend, the 'stopper' is released, __________ occurs and there is an _______ __________.

tip links; depolarization; action potential

What is tinnitus?

Subjective ringing, buzzing or hissing sounds coming from inside the head, in the absence of corresponding external stimuli (Thomas, 1993)



Miekle et al. (1984) found that tinnitus is reported as being 'quiet' sounds, but causes a lot of reported distress. Sound doesn't have to be loud to cause harm to people's quality of life :(

Sound information passes via the ________ to the _________ _________ cortex, which is divided into regions corresponding to different parts of the cochlea- this is ___________ organisation.

thalamus; primary auditory; tonotopic

How does deja vu work?

The primary auditory cortex analyses the location of sound. Deja vu can occur when one hemisphere of the brain perceives something a couple of milliseconds sooner than the other.


What are the 3 basic dimensions in space that are detected via 3 corresponding canals in the ear?

Roll, pitch and yaw

Taste: Sweet: _____ ________. Activates pleasure chemicals to encourage you to eat more, as you're average caveman needed all the calories he could get.


Savoury: ________ source (Umami- delicious taste in Japanese)


Salty/sour: ______________ (control of internal conditions, e.g. blood chemistry)


Bitter: possibly __________

high calorie; protein; homeostasis; toxic

Where are each of the 5 tastes located on the tongue?

All taste receptors are equally capable of detecting all 5 tastes. The 'tongue map' thing was described by James as 'b*llocks' and that's verbatim, so feel free to write it in the exam and cite him :)



Taste buds have a 10-14 day lifespan as can change over time, meaning you can learn to like things you used to hate, and vice versa.

The ___________ cortex is responsible for taste perception, which varies from person to person. _________ and _________ are alongside one another in S1, so the two things go hand in hand when enjoying food

gustatory; taste; texture



If you watch Masterchef, the contestants are often criticised for missing this point and putting things together that lack a contrasting texture

We have ___ _________ smell receptors in two square centimeters of olfactory epithelium. Olfactory receptors can be _________ into adulthood, as can cells in the ______________ (memory) and taste receptors.

6 million; replaced; hippocampus

In smell; information travels to the ___________ (emotion) on the way to the __________. This means you can have a very strong emotional reaction to smells, and also that you will ______ to a smell before you have even ________ it.

amygdala; thalamus; react; identified

Despite humans having _______ olfactory receptor genes, only _______ types are active. This is because, as a species, we are not smell dependent. Nonetheless, we can distinguish _______ odours!

1000; 350; 5000

Taste and smell are closely related. ____________ stimulation occurs when molecules that stimulate ___________ receptors move from your mouth i.e. food, through your internal nares, stimulating the receptors in the _________ _______.

Retronasal; olfactory; olfactory bulb



This is why taking nasty medicine is easier if you hold your nose, but also why you can still taste it when you let go!

What is the Vomeronasal organ (VNO)?

It's supposedly able to detect pheromones in the opposite sex, which reveal reproductive compatibility. It's controversial- some think it's been eliminated by evolution, and some think it's still influential on our choice of mate!

Can you draw the areas to do with senses on a picture of the brain?

Me neither. But it might be on the exam, so worth a look- last slide of L8