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228 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is Life?
The ensemble of functions that resist death
How is life organized?
Organization often follows a hierarchical pattern of structures within structures within structures
What are the levels of life's organization?
atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, multicellular organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
What are the 5 characteristics of life?
Organization, Energy use, Maintenance of internal constancy, Reproduction growth and development, Evolution
Organization
Example: Atoms make up molecules, which make up organelles, which occur inside cells, which make up tissues, and so on
Energy use
Example: A kitten uses the energy from its mothers milk to fuel its own growth
Maintenance of internal constancy
Example: Your kidneys regulate your bodys water balance by increasing or decreasing the concentration of your urine
Reproduction, growth, and development
Example: An acorn germinates, develops into an oak seedling, and, at maturity, reproduces sexually to produce its own acorns
Evolution
Example: Increasing numbers of bacteria survive treatment with antibiotic drugs
Atom
The smallest chemical unit of a type of pure substance (element). Consists of protons, neutrons, electrons, and a neucleus
Molecule
A group of joined atoms
Organelle
A membrane-bounded structure that has a specific function within a complex cell
Cell
The fundamental unit of life
Tissue
A collection of specialized cells that function in a coordinated fashion
Organ
A structure consisting of tissues organized to interact to carry out specific functions
Organ System
Organs connected physically or chemically that function together
Multicellular Organism
A living individual
Population
A group of the same type of organism living in the same place and time
Communtiy
All organisms in a given place and time
Ecosystem
The living and nonliving environment. (The community of life, plus soil, rocks, water, air, etc.)
Biosphere
Parts of the planet and its atmosphere where life is possible
Taxonomy
Classification of organisms and life
What are the hierarchial categories (Domain to Species)?
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species
What is the Scientific Method?
A systematic approach to understanding the natural world
Scientific Method categories
Observations, Hypothesis, Experimentation, Result, and Conclusion
Hypothesis
A tentative explanation based on previous knowledge OR a testable question
Theory
Well-supported scientific explanation
Variable
A changeable element of an experiment
Independent Variable
Hypothesized influence on a dependent variable OR a manipulation
Dependent Variable
Response that may be under the influence of an independent variable
Peer Review
Scientists independently evaluate the validity of the methods, data and conclusions to ensure that published studies are high quality
What is Science capable of studying?
Questions about the observable natural world
Chemical Element
A pure substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means into other substances
Periodic Table of Elements
The chart is periodic because the chemical properties of the elements repeat in each column of the table
Bulk Elements
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfer, and Phosphorus make up the vast majority of every living cell and are required in large amounts
Trace Elements
Important in ensuring that vital chemical reactions occur fast enough to sustain life
Parts of the Atom
Protons, Neutrons, Electrons, Neucleus
Protons
Carry a positive charge
Neutron
Uncharged and together form a central nucleus
Electrons
Surround the nucleus and are negatively charged
Which is the smallest part of an atom?
The electron is the smallest
Atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus
Atomic Mass or Atomic Weight
The average weight of all isotopes
Isotopes
All isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties, but different mass numbers because the different number of neutrons
Radioactive Isotope
Has a characteristic half-life, which is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample to emit radiation or decay to a different more stable form
How are Radioactive Isotopes used in medicine and science?
Kill disease-causing organisms, Tracers, Radiometric dating, Cancer therapy
Chemical Bond
An attractive force that holds atoms together in a molecule
How does a chemical bond provide the energy within a molecule?
By sharing, stealing, or donating electrons
Covalent bond
Forms when two atoms share electrons. The shared electrons travel around both nuclei, strongly connecting the atoms together
Ionic bond
Results from the electrical attraction between two ions with opposite charges
Hydrogen bond
Opposite partial charges on adjacent molecules -- or within a single large molecule -- attract eachother
Nonpolar covalent bond
A union in which both atoms exert approximately equal pull on their shared electrons
Polar covalent bond
Is a lopsided union in which one nucleus exerts a stronger pull on the shared electrons than does the other nucleus
Are polar covalent bonds important in biology?
Yes, they are responsible for the shape of DNA and proteins as well as for the unique role of water
Why is carbon such an important atom in biology?
It has the potential to create 4 bonds with other atoms
Cohesion
The tendency of water molecules to stick together
What type of bond contributes to waters property of cohesion?
Hydrogen bonds
Adhesion
The tendency to form hydrogen bonds with other substances
What is the importance of Water?
Its cohesive and adhesive, Polar substances dissolve in water, water regulates temperature, and water participates in lifes chemical reactions
What two categories do scientists divide chemicals into based on their affinity for water?
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
Chemical reaction
Two or more molecules swap their atoms to yield different molecules; some chemical bonds break and new ones form
Neutral solution
Has exactly the same amount of H+ as OH-
Acid
A chemical that adds H+ to a solution making the concentration of H+ ions exceed the concentration of OH-
Base
It makes the concentration of OH- ions exceed the concentration of H+ ions
What is the pH scale?
A system of measurement used to gauge how acidic or basic a solution is
What is the range of the pH scale?
0 - 14 with 7 being neutral and a basic or alkaline solution being greater than 7
Buffer system
Pairs of weak acids and bases that resist pH changes
Is the correct pH critical to lifes functions and what helps cells maintain proper pH?
Yes it is critical; Buffers help maintain proper pH
Organic molecule
Chemical compounds that contain both carbon and hydrogen
How are monomers turned into polymers?
Thru dehydration synthesis
Dehydration synthesis
A protein called an enzyme removes a OH (hydroxyl group) from one molecule and a hydrogen atom from another forming H2O and a new bond between the two smaller components
Monomers
Chains of small molecular subunits like proteins, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates
Polymers
Monomers which are linked together
Hydrolysis
Enzymes use atoms from water to add a hydroxyl group to one molecule and a hydrogen atom to another
Carbohydrates
Organic molecules that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; often in the proportion 1:2:1
Monosaccharides
Simple Sugar; the smallest carbohydrates usually contain five or six carbon atoms
What are some monosaccharides?
Glucose (blood sugar), galactose, and fructose (fruit sugar)
Disaccharide (two sugars)
Two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis
How is the disaccharide lactose (milk sugar) formed?
When glucose and galactose come together
What is the function of monosaccharides and disaccharides?
Provide a ready source of energy to cells, which is released when their bonds are broken
Polysaccharides (many sugars)
Also called complex carbohydrates, are huge molecules consisting of hundreds of monosaccharide monomers
What are some polysaccharides?
Cellulose, chitin, starch, and glycogen
What is the most common organic compound in nature?
Cellulose (polysaccharide) which forms part of plant cell walls
What is the function of Chitin?
Forms the exoskeletons of insects and part of the cell wall of fungi
What types of polysaccharides store energy?
Starch and glycogen
Lipids
Organic molecules with one property in common; they dont dissolve in water
Triglycerides (fats)
Consist of three long hydrocarbon chains called fatty acids bonded to glycerol
Fatty acid
Long chain hydrocarbon terminating with a carboxyl group
Functional groups
Hydroxyl, carboxyl, amine, phosphate
Saturated fat
Fatty acid contains all the hydrogens it possibly can
Unsaturated fat
Fatty acid that has at least one double bond between carbon atoms
Sterols
Lipids that have four interconnected carbon rings
Examples of sterols?
Vitamin D, cortisone, and cholesterol
Waxes
Fatty acids combined with either alchols or other hydrocarbons, usually forming a stiff water repellent covering
Protein
A chain of monomers called amino acids
Amino acid
an organic molecule consisting of a central carbon atom bonded to a hydrogen atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group
Peptide
Chains with fewer than 100 amino acids
Polypetides
Chains with 100 amino acids or more
Denatured
When its structure is modified enough to destroy its function
Nucleic acid
A polymer consisting of monomers called nucleotides
Cells contain two types of nucleic acids
RNA and DNA
Cells
Microscopic components of all organisms which have highly coordinated biochemical activities within them
How was the cell discovered?
In 1660 when Robert Hooke melted glass to create lenses which turned into microscopes
Cell theory
1. All organisms are made of one or more cells
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of ALL life
3. All cells come from prexisting cells
What is the importance of Cell theory?
To understand how the world works
What features are common to all cells?
DNA, Proteins, RNA, Ribosomes, Cytoplasm, Cell membrane
DNA
Genetic information
Proteins
Carry out all of the cells work
RNA
Participates in the production of the cells proteins
Ribosomes
Structures that use RNA to manufacture proteins
Cytoplasm
The watery soup of salts, organic molecules and other substances inside the cell
Cell membrane
Lipid rich and forms the boundary between living matter and the enviornment
Organelles
Compartments in the cytoplasm that carry out specialized functions
Why is surface area important in a cell?
The more surface area the more work a cell can do
What is the cell membrane composed of?
Phospholipids
Enzymes
Proteins that facilitate chemical reactions that otherwise would not proceed quickly enough to sustain life
Why can Eukaryotic cells do more work than Prokaryotic cells?
The Prokaryotic cells lack membrane bounded organelles which allow the Eukartotic cells more surface area to do work
What is the function of the cell membrane?
1. Seperate the the cytoplasm from the environment
2. Transports substances into and out of the cell
Are molecules alive?
No
Signal transduction
A cell receives an external message and converts it into an internal signal
Why is communication within a cell important?
It allows cells to tell other cells when to stop dividing unlike cancer cells which dont listen and keep dividing and form tumors or cancer
Prokaryotes
are the simplest form of life whose cells lack organelles and nuclei
Eukaryotes
Larger than Prokaryotes and Baceria; Have elaborate systems of internal membranes which create organelles where specialized biochemical reactions occur
Bacteria
Lack a central nucleus
Nucleoid
Where bacteria keep their genetic material (DNA)
Flagella
Tails which allow the cell to move; found in bacteria and archea
What is the main difference between plant and animal cells?
Plant cells have a central vacuole, chloroplast, and a cell wall
Golgi apparatus
An organelle that is a flat stack of membrane enclosed sacs that functions as a processing center
Nuclear pores
Where molecules exit the nucleus which are holes in the two layered nuclear envelope
Nuclear envelope
Seperates the nucleus from the cytoplasm
Nucleolus
A dense spot that assembles the comonents of ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
A network of sacs and tubules composed of membranes
Smooth ER
Synthesizes lipids and houses enzymes that detoxify drugs and poison
Rough ER
Enzymes inside this compartment fold and modify the proteins that enter
Vesicles
Small membranous spheres that transport materials inside the cell
Lysosomes
Organelles containing enzymes that dismantle captured bacteria
Vacuole
In mature plant cells the central vacuole contains a watery solution of enzymes that degrade and recycle molecules and organelles
Peroxisomes
Found in eukaryotic cells which are organelles that contain several types of enzymes that dispose of toxic substances and break down fatty acids, cholesterol, and other lipids
Chloroplast
Site of photosynthesis which produces plant energy from the sun
Mitochondria
Organelles that use a process called cellular respiration to extract this needed energy from food
Cristae
Folds in the inner membrane of the mitochondria which contain enzymes that catalyze the biochemical reactions of cellular resperation
Cytoskeleton
located in the cytoplasm and gives the cell its structure; Intricate network of internal protein tracks and tubules
Microtubles
Participate in cell division and cell movement
Cilia
Propels particles up and out of respiratory tubles and allows them to swim
Microfilament
Provides the machinery to move (muscle contraction)
Intermediate filaments
Maintain shape and connect cells
Cell walls
Surround the cell membrane of nearly all bacteria, archaea, fungi, algae, and plants
Plasmodesmata
Channels that connect adjacent cells
Energy
The ability to do work and move matter
Potential energy
Stored energy available to do work
Kinetic energy
Energy being used to do work; any moving object has kinetic energy
First law of thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed only converted into other forms
What are the most important energy transformations vital to sustain life?
Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration
Second law of thermodynamics
All energy transformations are inefficient because every reaction loses some energy to the surroundings as heat
Metabolism
encompasses all chemical reactions in cells, including those that build new molecules and break down existing ones
Metabolic pathways
The product of one reaction becomes the starting point of another
Endergonic reaction
Store energy by building complex molecules from small components, like building a barn from bricks and boards
Two groups of metabolic reactions
Endergonic reaction & Exergonic reaction
Exergonic reaction
Releases energy by dismantling complex molecules
Oxidation
The loss of electrons from a molecule, atom, or ion
Reduction
The gain of electrons plus any energy contained in the electrons
Chemical equilibrium
The reaction goes in both directions at the same rate
ATP
Temporarily store much of the released energy of life
phosphorylating
Transferring its phosphate group to another molecule
Why is ATP such an important molecule in biology?
It is used to drive reactions
Enzyme
A protein that catalyzes (speeds) a chemical without being consumed
Why are enzymes important in your body?
They copy DNA, build proteins, digest food, and recycle cells worn out parts
How can you denature an enzyme?
If it gets too hot, the pH changes, or if the salt concentration becomes too high or too low, it will stop working
What are enzyme inhibitors?
Affects the binding of substrate
Diffusion
The spontaneous movement of a substance from a region where it is less concentrated
Osmosis
The simple diffusion of water across a biological membrane
Simple diffusion
A form of passive transport where a solute moves down its concentration gradient without the help of a carrier molecule; no energy required
Facilitated diffusion
Passive transport where a membrane protein assists the movement of a polar solute along its concentration gradient; no energy required
Active transport
A cell uses a transport protein to move a solute against its concentration gradient--from where it is less concentrated to where it is more concentrated
Why is diffusion important in biology?
It allows a cell to move substances without using energy
Isotonic solution
Same concentration inside the cell as it is outside the cell
Hypotonic solution
The concentration outside the cell is less than the inside of the cell
Hypertonic solution
The concentration outside the cell is more than the inside of the cell
Sodium/Potassium Pump
An enzyme which is part of the active transport system in cell membranes; Uses ATP as its energy source
Endocytosis
Allows a cell to engulf large molecules
Exocytosis
Transports fluids and large particles out of cells
How does a cell bring material in, and push material out?
Endocytosis; Excytosis; The cell either indents and encloses on itself or it basically releases an air bubble of material
Photosynthesis
Converts kinetic energy in light to potential energy in the covalent bonds of glucose. Plants, algae, and some bacteria are photosynthetic
Why is photosynthesis so important?
It allows plants to feed themselves with sunlight
Photosynthesis Equation
6CO2 +6H20 +light energy= C6H12O6 + 6O2
What are photosynthesis reactants and products
Sunlight is the reactant and Glucose is the product
How long ago did photosynthesis begin?
3.5 billion years ago
Autotroph
Organisms that make their own organic compounds from inorganic substances such as Water and CO2
Heterotrophs
They obtained carbon by consuming preexisting organic molecules before photosynthesis began
Electromagnetic radiation
Consists of photons
Photon
Discrete packets of kinetic energy with a distinct wavelength
What is ATP?
Its the energy source for everything in a living organism
Chlorophyl
A pigment molecule in the thylakoids (pancake stack inside the cell)
Chloroplasts
Plant Organelle with folded membranes which allows for the reactions of photosynthesis
Stroma
Similar to cytoplasm for animal cells but for plants
Grana
Stack of thylakoids (Stack of pancakes)
Reaction center
chlorophyll a and its associated proteins
Light-Independent reaction
Carbon reactions which dont require light only ATP
Light dependent reaction
Only happens during the day for plants
Photosystem 1
Collects light through clorophyll a
Photosystem 2
Functions first in photosynthesis and it makes ATP
How many turns of the Calvin Cycle to make one glucose
2
What kind of plants are C3 plants?
Produces 3 carbon molecules from CO2
What do C3 plants make
Glucose
What kind of plants are known as C4 plants?
Plants with a 4 carbon compound
Why did C4 plants evolve?
To resist hot weather
What kind of plants use CAM photosynthesis?
Cactus and desert plants where its hot
Hint
Photosynthesis produces sugars and respiration breaks sugars down
How do cells release energy?
Breaking glucose bonds
Respiration Equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 to 6CO2 + 6H20 + 30ATP
How is the respiration equation similar to the photosynthesis equation?
Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis + 30 ATP gained
What is the main reason why cellular respiration is important?
It makes ATP
What does aerobic mean?
Needs oxygen
What does anaerobic mean?
Doesnt need oxygen
Glycosis
Breaking sugar
What does glycosis make?
Energy / ATP
What is acetyl co-enzyme A
The compound that enters the Krebs cycle
Can acetyl co-enzyme A be made with no oxygen
Yes
Krebs Cycle
Produces ATP
Electron transport chain
Transports electrons to a different part of the cell to make more ATP
How much energy does glucose make
30 ATP
How efficiently does glucose break down?
Only captures 32% of total energy
Large macromolecules
Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats
Why do you need to consume oxygen?
To recieve electrons at the end of the transport chain
What does the Calvin Cycle make?
Sugars
Where does the Calvin Cycle take place?
Stroma
Where does Krebs Cycle take place?
Matrix of mitochondria
clair/-e
clear/bright/light