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139 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What do animals rely on (in general) for energy production?
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Aerobic respiration
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The biochemical energy from nutrients is converted into
a. ADP b. ATP c. NADH d. Oxygen e. Glucose |
b.
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In plant and animal cells, nutrients used in respiration include
a. ATP, glucose, NADH b. water, CO2, oxygen c. fatty acids, oxygen, glucose d. glucose, amino acids, fatty acids |
d.
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Aerobic Respiration occurs in which of the following orders?
a. glycolysis b. the formation of acetyl coenzyme A c. Krebs cycle d. electron transport chain e. Chemiosmosis |
a, b, c, d, e
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True/False Glycolysis requires oxygen.
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False
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Where does glycolysis occur?
a. mitochondria b. thylakoid membrane c. intermembrane space d. cytosol |
d.
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What does glycolysis produce?
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2 pyruvates
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How many ATP molecules and NADH molecules does glycolysis produce?
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2 ATP
2 NADH |
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Where does the oxidation of pyruvate occur?
a. mitochondria b. thylakoid membrane c. intermembrane space d. cytosol e. matrix |
e.
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What does the oxidation of pyruvate produce?
a. ATP b. acetyl-CoA c. glucose d. citrate |
b.
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The conversion of pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA requires the oxidation of _____ to _____ and also releases a molecule of ____.
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NAD+
NADH CO2 |
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The Krebs cycle begins with _________ transferring a two-carbon acetyl group to a four carbon compound ___________ to form a six carbon compound _______. Through a cyclical series of seven chemial reaction, high-energy phosphate compounds are produced and ___________ is regenerated.
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acetyl-CoA
oxaloacetate citrate oxaloacetate |
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For each acetyl-CoA that enters the Krebs cycle,
__ NADH __ FADH2 __ GTP __ CO2 are produced from one turn |
3
1 1 2 |
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The electron transport chain occurs in the
a. mitochondria b. thylakoid membrane c. stroma d. inner membrane space |
d.
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H+ ions are transferred from the ________ to the _________.
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matrix
inner membrane space |
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The enzymes that catalyze these reactions cause a proton gradient. The flow of protons back into the matrix of the mitochondria and with the enzyme ___________, ADP combines with an inorganic phosphate to form ATP.
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ATP synthase
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How many molecules of ATP does chemiosmosis produce?
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32
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How many molecules does 1 NADH produce? 1 FADH2?
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1 NADH = 3 ATP
1 FADH2 = 2 ATP |
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If oxygen is not present after glycolysis glucose splits into pyruvate, the pyruvate is converted to __________ in animals or _______ in plants.
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lactic acid
ethanol |
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In mammals, when the rate of oxygen delivery to the tissues is insufficient for aerobic ATP production, what type of respiration takes place?
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anaerobic respiration
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Anaerobic ATP production is maintained by three pathways: _________, ________ ________, and _________ _________.
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glycolysis
creatine kinase adenylate kinase |
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To replenish ATP levels quickly, muscle cells contain high-energy phosphate compounds known as __________ __________.
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creatine phosphate
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A phosphate group from cytosolic creatine phosphate is removed by the enzyme _________ _________, and then transferred to ADP to form ATP. What kind of shuttle is this called?
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creatine kinase
creatine phosphate shuttle |
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How many seconds can the creatine phosphate shuttle supply energy?
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8-10 seconds
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Adenylate kinase combines two molecules of ____ to form ATP.
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ADP
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When oxygen is insufficient, NADH cannot release H+ and it builds up in the cell. To prevent the rise in acidity, lactic acid dissociates into _______ and ___.
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Lactate
H+ |
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Where does the lactate and some of the H+ diffuse?
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in the blood
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When oxygen is restored, what is the fate of lactate?
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it is converted into pyruvate
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Blood lactate levels are routinely used as an indicator of the extent of ___________ metabolism.
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anaerobic
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How many seconds are anaerobic activities?
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0-30 sec
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How many seconds are Aerobic Activities?
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45 sec to 1 hour
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How many steps per minutes did students step? For how long?
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22 steps/min
5 minutes |
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Mean VO2 max values for male athletes are ~___ L/min, female athletes ~ ___ L/min.
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3.5
2.7 |
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What are the fates of pyruvate?
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to enter the Krebs cycle in the presence of oxygen
to be converted into lactic acid |
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Why can cells not convert all the lactic acid produced into pyruvic acid?
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If you don't have enough oxygen, your cell will not use all pyruvic acid
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Which energy system has the highest yield of ATP?
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Electron Transport, Chemiosmosis
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________ ____ needs to be converted into __________ ____ to enter the Krebs cycle.
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Pyruvic Acid
Acetyl CoA |
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If 2 subjects have similar heights, body weights, and are stepping at the same step height and rate, why is one subject's heart rate higher than the others?
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The one with a higher heart rate is less fit
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How do you determine the initial velocity of blood lactate accumulation in the blood stream.
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2nd-1st
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Why is pyruvate considered a high energy molecule?
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Because of its carbon-oxygen double bonds
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Darwin's theory of natural selection proposed that evolutionary change is "introduced into a population when individuals of that population possess certain inherited characteristics and then produce more surviving offspring that individuals lacking those characteristics. Therefore, the population gradually comes to include more and more individuals with the _______________characteristics.
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advantageous
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What are the five agents of evolutionary change?
Mom gives Noah great spanks |
1. mutation: changes in DNA sequence
2. Gene flow 3. Nonrandom mating 4. Genetic drift 5. Selection |
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_________ is the most prominent form and is defined as changes in DNA sequences
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mutation
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__________ is the movement of alleles from one population to another. For example, lizards here look different from lizards in FL.
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Gene Flow
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___________ describes why males and females mate with each other.
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Non-random mating
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_____________ describes random changes in allele frequency and is fueled by the environment and how it affects an animal.
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Genetic drift
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___________ describes how environmental conditions influence which individuals in a population produce more offspring.
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Selection
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In the evolution lab, we did a brief study of the evolution of ________ of several species. We also made a ___________ tree to determine which living animals are closely related to the whales.
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ankle bones
phylogenetic tree |
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What are the most primitive whales called?
a. Perissodactyls b. Artiodactyls c. Mesonychids d. Ungulates e. Archaeocetes |
e.
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What are the extinct four-legged animals called?
a. Perissodactyls b. Artiodactyls c. Mesonychids d. Ungulates e. Archaeocetes |
c.
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Mesonychids are related to ________ because they have hooves on their toes.
a. Perissodactyls b. Artiodactyls c. Mesonychids d. Ungulates e. Archaeocetes |
d.
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Which of the following types of animals do the most primitive whales (archaeocetes) share traits with?
a. Perissodactyls b. Artiodactyls c. Mesonychids d. Ungulates e. Archaeocetes |
c.
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Since mesonychids are related to ungulates and archaeocetes are related to mesonychids, what can we say whales are related to?
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ungulates!
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Modern ungulates are divided into two major subgroups. What are they?
a. Perissodactyls b. Artiodactyls c. Mesonychids d. Ungulates e. Archaeocetes |
A and B
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Perissodactyls have an (even/odd) number of toes while artiodacyls have an (even/odd) number of toes
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odd
even |
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Are Mesonychid ankles more like the ankles of Perissodactyls, or of Artiodactyls?
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Perissodactyls
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Are early whale (Pakicetus) ankles more like those of the Perissodactyls, Mesonychids, or Artiodactyls?
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Artiodactyls
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Therefore, do modern whales most likely share their recent common ancestory with: Perissodactyls, Mesonychids, or Artiodactyls?
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Artiodactyls
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What does this change in our ideas about ancestry tell us about nature?
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Science is open to revision
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Of the DNA segments we analyzed in lab, which of the following are cetaceans?
a. Right Whale b. Sperm Whale c. Porpoise d. Giraffe e. Hippo f. Cow g. Camel h. Deer i. Pig j. Peccary k. Rhino |
Sperm Whale, Right Whale, Porpoise
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Of the DNA segments we analyzed in lab, which of the following are artiodactyls?
a. Right Whale b. Sperm Whale c. Porpoise d. Giraffe e. Hippo f. Cow g. Camel h. Deer i. Pig j. Peccary k. Rhino |
d-j
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Of the DNA segments we analyzed in lab, which of the following are perissodactyls?
a. Right Whale b. Sperm Whale c. Porpoise d. Giraffe e. Hippo f. Cow g. Camel h. Deer i. Pig j. Peccary k. Rhino |
Rhino
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DNA is found in a complex with specialized proteins called _________.
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histones
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Histones are important in helping the long DNA strands to fold into chromatin during __________ of mitosis and into intact chromosomes during cell ________.
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interphase
division |
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In order to isolate DNA, you need to separate the ________ from the rest of the tissue.
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nuclei
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Cells can be broken up in various ways. Name the three ways we can achieve this.
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1. by mechanical action
2. by osmotic shock 3. by the addition of detergents that dissolve the plasma membrane |
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Disruption procedures reduce the cells to an extract, called a __________, containing soluble components, plasma membrane fragments and intact organelles.
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homogenate
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The soap in the buffer disrupts the cell membrane's ______________ __________.
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phospholipid bilayer
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Once the cell components are released the salt binds to _________ charged phosphate groups in the DNA's sugar-phosphate backbone. This allows for the DNA molecules to be ______ bound.
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negative
loosely |
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The resulting DNA is more ______ and insoluble in the presence of alcohol and can therefore be precipitated out using ice cold ______.
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viscous
ethanol |
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___________ is a protein found in red blood cells that is responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the ells in all tissues of the body.
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Hemoglobin
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Hemoglobin contains ___ subunits, with each subunit containing a nonprotein portion called a _____.
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4
heme |
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What does the heme do?
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binds the oxygen molecule
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The polypeptide chains of hemoglobin are often referred to as the _______ portion of the molecule.
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globin
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Normal adult hemoglobin (____) contains two subunits called _____ and two called _____.
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HbA
alpha beta |
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Fetal hemoglobin (____) is found in the blood of human fetus and is similar to HbA except that two _____ chains replace the two beta chains.
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HbF
gamma |
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In the human population, there are many different forms of hemoglobin that have arisen due to ________.
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mutations
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The most common abnormal hemoglobin is Hemoglobin __ (___) that causes _____ ____ _______ in persons that are homozygous for this mutation.
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S
HbS sickle cell anemia |
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In HbS, a single _________ ____ residue on the beta chain is replaced by a ______.
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glutamic acid
valine |
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The valine mutation causes a change in the conformation so that when HbS is _____________, the mutant hemoglobin molecules polymerize to form long chains that cause the red blood cells to alter into a sickle cell shape.
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deoxygenated
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What does the body do to the abnormally shaped sickle cells and what happens to the person?
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kills them
severely anemic |
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Sickle cell disease is inherited as a __________ ___________ gene.
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autosomal recessive
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When a person is homozygous for the mutant form of hemoglobin, all hemoglobin found in the red blood cells is ____ and the patient is ________ anemic.
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HbS
severely |
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If a person inherits only one mutant gene from the parent, the individual is ___________ and is said to have the ______ _____ _____.
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heterozygous
sickle cell trait |
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If a person is has the sickle cell trait, do they express HbS as codominance, incomplete dominance, or don't express it at all?
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codominance
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True/False HbS originated in Africa to protect persons from one form of cancer.
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False malaria
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Abnormal hemoglobin can often be detected by ____________.
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electrophoresis
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Hemoglobin molecules at a pH of ___ heve a net ________ charge and will move toward the cathode (positive pole) in an electrophoretic system.
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9.2
negative |
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True/False Mutant hemoglobin molecules that have changes in their amino acid sequence alter the overall charge of the protein so that it is different at 9.2 pH.
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True
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What is the molecular basis for the difference in the electrophoretic pattern between normal HbS and HbA?
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HbA has a glutamic acid and HbS has a valine
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Can all abnormal hemoglobins be diagnosed by electrophoresis? Why not?
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No because electrophoresis only tests for sickle cell anemia and traits in which the mutated hemoglobin molecule exhibits a difference in polarity
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What fraction of the offspring of two parents with a sickle cell trait would you expect to have sickle cell anemia?
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25% ss
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In the floating disk assay, why was water used as a control?
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We know photosynthesis won't occur without CO2, so we used water because it does not contain CO2
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How does light intensity affect the rate of photosynthesis?
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increases the rate of photosynthesis
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Why do the disks begin to sink when light is removed?
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Light increases photosynthesis, so when light is removed it decreases photosynthesis and the disks sink to the bottom
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What wavelength of colors increase photosynthesis?
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Blue, Red, Bright Light
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___________ is a process in which plants obtain energy from the sun and convert it into sugars
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Photosynthesis
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Photosynthesis occurs in the organelle called the _________.
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chloroplast
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Chloroplast's contain a green pigment known as __________.
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chlorophyll
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The first step of photosynthesis occurs in the __________ _________ of the chloroplast, and is known as the _______ ___________ _________.
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thylakoid membrane
light dependent reactions |
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In the light-dependent reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules that are arranged into unique structures called __________.
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photosystems
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A photosystem consists of hundreds of accessory pigments called the light-harvesting complex (______ _________) that gather photons from sunlight and transfers the excited energy to the reaction center.
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antenna complex.
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The ________ ________ contains two chlorophyll a molecules that pass the excited electrons out of the photosystem and down an electron transport chain.
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reaction center
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In ___________ __, light strikes the antenna complex and excites electrons to a higher energy state.
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photosystem II
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The excited electrons are channeled to the ________ ________ of photosystem II.
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reaction center
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At the reaction center, the excited electrons are transferred to an electron acceptor and down an electron transport chain generating a ______ _____ to produce ATP.
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proton gradient
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At the reaction center, the lost electrons are replaced through the oxidation of _____ and thereby releasing _______ and hydrogen. What is this called ?
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water
oxygen photolysis |
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The electrons from photosystem II are passed to the reaction center of __________ __.
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photosystem I
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When light strikes the ________ ________ of photosystem I the excited electrons are channeled to the reaction center and transferred to an electron acceptor and down an electron transport chain.
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antenna complex
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These electrons are passed to NADP+ reducing it to _________. Lost electrons are replaced by ___________.
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NADPH
Photosystem II. |
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The next step in photosynthesis occurs in the ______ of the chloroplast and is known as the ______ _____.
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stroma
Calvin cycle |
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In the dark reactions, ___ reacts with the enzyme _______ __________ _________/_________ (RUBISCO) to eventually generate carbohydrates. This reaction is driven by ____ and _____ produced in the light reactions
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CO2
ribulose biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase ATP NADPH |
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How do you characterize photosynthetic pigments?
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spectrophotometer
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How did we analyze the different pigments found in chloroplasts?
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Extracting chlorophyll from spinach leaves
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Where is chlorophyll embedded? What did we have to dissolve?
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inside chloroplasts
plasma membrane |
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True/False Chlorophyll is soluble in water, it is nonpolar and hydrophobic.
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False- non-soluble
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What was the solvent that we used and was it polar or nonpolar?
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acetone
nonpolar |
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The chromatography paper we used was polar or nonpolar?
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polar
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How many oxygens do the following pigments have? What does this mean about their polarity?
a. Carotene b. Xanthophyll c. Chlorophyll-a d. Chlorophyll-b e. Anthocyanin |
a. 0
b. 4 c. 5 d. 6 e. 8 Polarity a<b<c<d<e |
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Since carotene is the least polar would it migrate away from acetone or migrate towards acetone?
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towards
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Chlorophyll absorbs what parts of the spectrum (colors)?
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red and blue
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A _______________ measures the proportion of light of a specific wavelength that is absorbed by a chemical solution. It does this by passing a beam of light through a test-tube containing the chemical, and measuring the amount of light that exits the test-tube on the other side.
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spectrophotometer
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What wavelengths (and colors) are most absorbed by chlorophyll a?
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660 red
420 blue |
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What wavelengths (and colors) are least absorbed by chlorophyll a?
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560 yellow
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The mechanism of cell division in eukaryotic cells.
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Mitosis
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The genetic information is in the form of __________ which becomes chromosomes that participate in the well-orchestrated events of mitosis.
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chromatin
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After the division of the nucleus, the cytoplasm is divided into two new cells by a process known as _____________.
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cytokinesis
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What happens in G1 phase?
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Cell has grown in size, increases # of organelles
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What happens in S phase?
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DNA is copied, cell has 2 complete copies of DNA and chromosomes have been replicated
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What happens in G2 phase?
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The cell is preparing to divide
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What happens in Prophase?
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The nuclear envelope starts to break down, kinetochores start to attach
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What happens in metaphase?
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Chromosomes are on equator, microtubules are on plasma membrane
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What happens in Anaphase?
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Chromosome material has pulled apart
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What happens in Telophase?
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Cleavage furrow
DNA will start to decondense so it can start making things |
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What happens in cytokinesis?
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A ring of actin separates the two cells
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Of the four stages of mitosis, which one takes the most time to complete?
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Prophase
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Which is the shortest stage in duration?
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Anaphase
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What would happen if the process of mitosis skipped metaphase?
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The chromosomes would be unequally distributed because they did not line up on the metaphase plate.
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Is blood type incomplete dominance or codominance?
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codominance
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