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120 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
a heritable change in the genetic material
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Mutation
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affects only a single base pair
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Point mutation
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do not alter the amino acid sequence
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Silent/Neutral mutations
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normal codon changed into a stop/termination codon
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Nonsense
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addition or deletion of nucleotides (1, 2, 4, 5)
(completely different sequence downstream) |
Frameshift
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may alter regulation of transcription
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Transcriptional response element
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may prevent proper translational regulation
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Translational response elements
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when mutated at boundaries between introns and exons, may not be able to splice properly and remove introns
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Splice Junctions
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replica plating to show that mutations are random events
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Lederbergs (Joshua & Ester)
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may or may not be found in all cells of a multicellular organism
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gene mutation
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can occur in any cell of the body at any time
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Mutation in:
-gamete -zygote -embryo -juvenile -adult... |
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the exact time and location of this is critical to severity of effect and ability to pass
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Germ-line or Somatic Cell Mutations
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ALL cells from ______ will carry mutation
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Gamete
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offspring WILL carry mutation
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Fertilized mutant gamete
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Offspring have 50% chance of passing this
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Mutation
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all other body cells
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Somatic Cells
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result from patches of mutated tissue
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Genetic Mosaic
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result from abnormailities in biological processes
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Spontaneous mutations
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brought on by environmental agents
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Induced mutations
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chemical or physical agents that disrupt pairing or interrupt with replication
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Mutagens
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_____ rate > ______ rate
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Mutation > spontaneous
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has high energy, penetrates deep into biological materials
-xrays -gamma rays |
Ionizing Radiation
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has less energy, penetrates surface
-UV rays |
Nonionizing Radiation
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enzyme removes a modification
not common |
Direct Repair of DNA
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strand removed and new segment synthesized
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Altered DNA repair
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most common repair system
region in damaged strand removed strand used for re-synthesis |
Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER)
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-exist in ALL species
-remove mismatch segments -repair NEW strand NOT parent strand |
Methyl-directed mismatch repair systems
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role is to distinguish between daughter and parental strands
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MutH
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-uncontrolled cell division
-multi stop process -originate from a single cell -cells grow abnormally |
Cancer
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80% of cancers are related to _______ exposure
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Carcinogens
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stage of cancer where you lose growth regulation
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Malignant
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stage where the cancer invades healthy tissue
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Invasive
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stage where cancer migrates
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Metastatic
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hormone that regulates cell division
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Growth Factors
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may promote cancer by keeping cell division signaling pathway "on"
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Oncogenes
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change in a single amino acid
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Missense mutations
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too much of encoded protein
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Gene Amplifications
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2 different chromosomes break then fuse together
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Chromosomal Translocations
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results in over-expression which leads to cancer
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Retroviral Insertions
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found in bacterial chromosomes
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Genes of bacteria
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region where tightly packed bacterial chromosome is found
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Nucleoid
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-molecules of double-stranded DNA
-compacted 1,000-fold |
Bacterial Chromosomes
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-small, circular pieces of DNA independent of bacterial chromosome
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Plasmids
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-has own origin of replication independent of bacterial chromosome
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Plasmids
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plasmid that can integrate into bacterial chromosome
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Episome
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contains genes that confer resistance against antibiotics
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Resistance Plasmids
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enable bacterium to digest and utilize substances
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Degradative Plasmids
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encode colicines (proteins that kill each other)
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Col Plasmids
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turn bacterium into pathogenic strain
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Virulence Plasmids
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allow bacteria to mate with each other
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Fertility Plasmids
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can form in less than a day and has 10-100 million cells
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Bacteria Colony
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how bacteria reproduces
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Binary Fission
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does not involve genetic contributions from 2 parents
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asexual reproduction
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may replicate independently of bacterial chromosome
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Plasmids
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show a great deal of genetic diversity
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Bacteria
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a lineage that has genetic differences compared to another strain
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Bacterial Strain
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2 sources:
1. Mutations 2. Genetic Transfer |
Genetic Diversity
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can occur that alter the bacterial genome and affect that traits of bacterial cells
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Mutations
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genetic material is transferred from one bacterial cell to another
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Genetic Transfer
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3 ways that Genetic Transfer can occure
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1. Conjugation
2. Transformation 3. Transduction |
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direct physical interaction tranfers genetic material from donor to receipient cell
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Conjugation
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DNA released from dead bacterium into environment and taken up by another
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Transformation
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virus transfers genetic information from one bacterium to another
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transduction
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attachment
entry integration synthesis of viral components viral assembly release |
Basic steps of Viruses life cycle
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specific for one kind of cell due to binding to specific molecules on cell surface
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Attachment
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phages inject its DNA into bacteria
-viral genes are expressed immediately |
Entry
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viral gene for synthesis of integrase (cuts host DNA and inserts viral genome)
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Integration
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replication of viral genome
and synthesis of capsid proteins |
Synthesis of Viral components
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some viruses self assemble
others have proteins that act as "scaffolding" |
Viral Assembly
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new viruses leave the host cell
(phages must lyse host cell to escape) virus goes to find next host |
Release
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-an enveloped animal virus containing single stranded RNA
-causative agent of AIDS -RNA virus -entire virus enters host -budding process of cell -new viruses bud from host and release |
HIV
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2 or more atoms bonded together
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molecule
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2 or more elements bonded together
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compound
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-atoms share a pair of electrons
-outer shells not full -strongest bonds |
Covalent
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-weak individually, strong in volume
-hold DNA strands together |
Hydrogen bond
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when a cation (+) bonds to an anion (-)
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Ionic bond
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carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms
-sugars |
Carbohydrates
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mostly hydrogen and carbon atoms
-fats |
Lipids
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carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and others
-amino acids |
Proteins
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responsible for storage, expression, and transmission of genetic information
-DNA -RNA |
Nucleic Acids
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determines function
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DNA structure
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building blocks of RNA and DNA
1. phosphates 2. sugars 3. nitrogens |
Nucleotides
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covalent linkages of nucleotides
- directionality 5' to 3; - have complements -are antiparallel |
strand of DNA
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two strands of DNA
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Double helix
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proteins associated with DNA
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chromosomes
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the complete complement of an organism's genetic material
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Genome
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4 levels of structure:
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary |
Protein Structure
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amino acids
determined by genes |
Primary
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folding, pleated sheets, random coils
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Secondary
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3-D shape
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Tertiary
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made of 2 or more polypeptides
(protein subunits, multimeric proteins) |
Quaternary
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1. hydrogen bonds
2. ionic bonds 3. hydrophobic effects 4. Van der Waals forces 5. Disulfide bridges |
Factors promoting protein folding
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seperates the internal contents of the cell from its external environment
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Plasma membrane
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basic framework of the membrane
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phospholipid bilayer
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water diffuses thu membrane from more water to area with less water
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Osmosis
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enable biological membranes to be selectively permeable
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Transport proteins
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how cells break down glucose to get the energy they need for metabolic processes
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Photosynthesis
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energy within light is captured and used to synthesize carbohydrates
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Photosynthesis
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organelles that carry out photosynthesis
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Chloroplast
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6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
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photosynthesis
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agent that speeds up the chemical reaction without being consumed
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Catalyst
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protein catalysts in living cells
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Enzymes
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sum total of ALL chemical reactions that occur within an organism
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Metabolism
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cells obtain energy from organic molecules
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Cellular Respiration
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Organic molecules + O2 --> CO2 + H2O + Energy
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cellular respiration
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1. glycolysis
2. breakdown pyruvate 3. citric acid cycle 4. oxidative phosphorylation |
breakdown of glucose
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energy investment
cleavage energy liberation |
Glycolysis
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acetyl CoA
NADH |
Pyruvate breakdown
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cabon dioxide, ATP
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CAC
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occurs by ATP synthase
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Ox. phosphorylation
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color, shape, texture
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character
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actual appearance of a character
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trait
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TT, tt, Tt
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Genotypes
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TT= Tall
Tt = Tall tt = short |
Phenotypes
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structures in living cells that contain genetic material
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chromosomes
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synthesis
replication compaction segregation |
4 Essential DNA processes
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G1
S G2 |
Interphase
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Pro
Meta Telo Ana |
Mitosis
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cells divide by furrowing of the plasma membrane
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Cytokinesis
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Pro 1
meta 1 ana 1 telo 1 pro 2 meta 2 ana 2 telo 2 |
Meiosis I and II
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