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140 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Metabolism |
The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body.
____________ can be be divided into catabolic and anabolic reactions. |
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Catabolic Reactions
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Break down large chemicals and release energy.
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Anabolic Reactions
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Build up large chemicals and require energy.
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Ingestion
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The acquisition of food and other raw materials.
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Digestion
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Process of converting food into a usable soluble form so that it can pass through membranes in the digestive tract and enter the body.
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Absorption
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Passage of nutrient molecules through the lining of the digestive tract into the body via diffusion or active transport.
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Transport
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Circulation of essential compounds required to nourish the tissues, and the removal of waste products from the tissues.
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Assimilation
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The building up of new tissues from digested food materials.
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Respiration
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The consumption of oxygen by the body. Cells use oxygen to convert glucose into ATP, a ready source of energy for cellular activities.
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Excretion
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The removal of waste products produced metabolic processes like respiration and assimilation.
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Synthesis
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The creation of complex molecules from simple ones (anabolism),
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Regulation
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The control of physiological activities. The body's metabolism functions to maintain its internal environment in a changing external environment.
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Irritability
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Ability to respond to a stimulus and is part of regulation.
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Growth
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Increase in size due to synthesis of new materials.
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Photosynthesis
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The process by which plants convert CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates.
Sunlight is harnessed by chlorophyll to drive this reaction. |
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What are all living things composed of?
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Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorus. Traces of Magnesium, iodine, iron, calcium.
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Protoplasm
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The living substance within a cell. Seperate from the non-living parts.
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H2O
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Water
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CO2
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Carbon Dioxide
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C6H12O6
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Glucose
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Two divisions of chemical compounds
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Inorganic and Organic
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Inorganic Compounds
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Compounds that do not include the element Carbon including salts and HCl
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Organic Compounds
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Compounds made by livings systems and contain carbon.
Including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. |
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Ratio of Carbon:Hydrogen:Oxygen in carbohydrates
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C:H:O
1:2:1 |
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What are carbohydrates used for?
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Storage forms of energy and structural molecules.
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What stores energy in in animals?
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Glucose and Glycogen
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What stores energy in plants?
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Starch
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Monosaccharides
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Single sugar subunits
Glucose or Fructose |
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D-Fructose
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CH2OH
| |=O HO--|--H H--|--OH H--|--OH | CH2OH |
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D-Glucose
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CHO
| H--|--OH HO--|--H H--|--OH H--|--OH | CH2OH |
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D-Galactose
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CHO
| H--|--OH HO--|--H HO--|--H H--|--OH | CH2OH |
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D-Mannose
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CHO
| HO--|--H HO--|--H H--|--OH H--|--OH | CH2OH |
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Disaccharide
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Two monosaccharide subunits joined by dehydration synthesis
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Dehydration synthesis
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1-4' addition of two monosaccharides. Loss of OH and H results in loss of H2O
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Polysaccharides
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Polymers or chains of repeating monosaccharide subunits.
1-4' addition. Glycogen and starch are ________ and are insoluble in water. |
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Are polysaccharides insoluble in water.
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Yes, they are insoluble in water.
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Hydrolysis
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Adding water, large polymers can be broken down into smaller subunits.
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Dehydration
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Polysaccharides are formed by removing water.
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What are lipids composed of?
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C,H,O. Just like carbohydrates.
Three fatty acid molecules bonded to a single glycerol backbone. |
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What is the ratio of atoms in lipids?
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H:O ratio is much larger than 2:1
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Why are fatty acids hydrophobic?
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Long carbon chains.
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Why are fatty acids acidic?
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Carboxylic acid group.
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Do lipids form polymers?
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NO, lipids do not form polymers.
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What are lipids used for?
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Chief means of food storage in animals.
Release more energy per gram weight than any other class of biological compounds. Provide insulation and protection against injury since they are a major component of fatty (adipose) tissue. |
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Lipid Derivatives
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Phospholipids, Waxes, Steroids, Carotenoids, Porphyrins
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Phopholipids
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Contain glycerol, two fatty acids, phophate group, nitrogen containing alcohol
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Waxes
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Esters of fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols.
Found as protective coatings on skin, fur, leaves of higher plants. |
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Steroids
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Three fused cyclohexane rings and one fused cyclopentane ring.
Cholesterol, Sex hormones, corticosteroids. |
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Sex Hormones
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Testosterone and Estrogen
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Carotenoids
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Fatty acid-like carbon chains containing conjugated double bonds and carrying six-membered carbone rings on each end.
Pigments that produce red, yellow, orange, and brown colors in plants and animals. Two subgroups: Carotenes and Xanthophylls. |
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Porphyrins
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AKA: Tetrapyrroles
Contain four joined pyrrole ringes Often complexed with a metal. Heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin. Chlorophyll complexed with Mg. |
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Proteins elements
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Contains:
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sometimes: Phosphorus Sulfur |
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How are amino acids joined together?
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Peptide Bonds via dehydration synthesis.
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What are chains of Amino acids called?
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Chains of amino acids formed via peptide bonds are called polypeptides or simply peptides.
AKA: Protein |
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Protein Primary Structure
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Sequence of Amino Acids
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Protein Secondary Structure
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alpha helix coiling or B sheet pleating
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Protein Tertiary Structure
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Global 3-D structure of Protein
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Protein Quaternary Structure
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Structure how multiple proteins fit together
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Structure of Argenine
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Picture
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Structure of Lysine
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Picture
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Structure of Histidine
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Picture
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Simple Proteins
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Composed entirely of amino acids
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Albumins and globulins
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Primarily globular in nature.
Functional proteins that act as carriers or enzymes. |
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Scleroproteins
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Fibrous in nature.
Act as structural proteins. Collagen is an example. |
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Conjugated Proteins
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Contain a simple protein portion, plus at least one nonprotein fraction.
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Lipoproteins
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Protein bound to lipid.
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Mucoproteins
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Protein bound to carbohydrate
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Chromoproteins
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Protein bound to pigmented molecules
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Metalloproteins
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Protein complexed around a metal ion
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Nucleoproteins
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Protein containing histone or protamine (nuclear protein) bound to nucleic acids
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Protein Function - Hormones
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Function as chemical messenger secreted into circulation.
Insulin and ACTH |
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Protein Function - Enzymes
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Biological catalysts that act by increasing the rate of chemical reactions important for biological functions.
Amylase and lipase and ATPase |
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Protein Function - Structural Proteins
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Contribute to physical support of a cell or tissue.
Extracellular: collagen Intracellular: proteins in cell membranes. |
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Protein Function - Transport proteins
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These are carriers of important materials.
Hemoglobin carries Oxygen in circulation. Cytochromes carry electrons during cellular respiration. |
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Protein Function - Antibodies
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Bind to foreign particles (antigens) including disease-causing organisms, that have entered the body.
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What are enzymes?
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Organic catalysts.
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What is a catalyst?
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Lower activation energy of a reaction.
Increase the rate of the reaction. Do not affect the overall ⋀G of reaction. Are not changed or consumed in the course of the reaction. |
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Why are enzymes needed?
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All living systems must be continuously controlled.
Enzymes regulate metabolism by speeding up or slowing down certain chemical reactions. |
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How do enzymes work?
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By decreasing the activation energy.
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What are enzymes made of?
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Proteins.
Thousands of of different enzymes can conceivably be formed. Many enzymes are conjugated proteins and have a non-protein co-enzyme. Both must be present in order for enzymatic activity. |
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What is the specificity of an enzyme?
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Enzymes are very selective.
Catalyze only 1 reaction or 1 specific class of related reactions. |
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Substrate
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Molecule upon which an enzyme acts.
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Active Site
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Area on each enzyme to which the substrate binds.
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Lock and Key Theory
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Theory that the spatial structure of an enzyme's active site is exactly complementary to the spatial structure of its substrate.
Two fit together like a lock and key. This theory is largely discounted. |
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Induced Fit Theory
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Theory that the active site is flexible.
When appropriate substrate come in contact with the active site, conformation of the active site changes to fit the substrate. |
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Enzyme Reversibility
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Most enzyme reactions are reversible.
The product synthesized by an enzyme can be desynthesized by the same enzyme. |
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Enzyme Action - Effects of Temperature
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As temperature increases, in general enzyme activity increases.
At an optimal temperature, heat alters the shape of the protein leading to deactivation of the enzyme and rapid drop in rate. |
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Enzyme Action - Effects of pH
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For each enzyme, there is optimal pH where activity decreases above and below this pH.
Many human enzymes are max at pH 7.2. Pepsin works well at pH=2 (acidic) of stomach. Pancreatic enzymes work best at pH 8.5 (in small intestine) |
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Enzyme Action - Effects of Concentration
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Concentration of substrate and enzyme greatly effect the rate.
Increasing concentration will increase rate until all active sites are full. |
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Examples of Enzyme Activity - Hydrolysis
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Hydrolysis functions to digest large molecules into smaller components.
Lactase hydrolyzes lactose to the monosaccharides glucose and galactose. Proteases degrade proteins to amino acids. Lipases break down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol. |
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Lactase
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Hydrolyzes lactose to the monosaccharides glucose and galactose.
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Proteases
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Degrade proteins to amino acids.
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Lipases
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Lipases break down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol.
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Examples of Enzyme Activity - Synthesis
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Reversibility of enzymes.
Forward and Backward directions occur in different locations within the cell. |
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Cofactors/Coenzymes
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Many enzymes require a non-protein element to become active.
Cofactor - Metal cations Coenzyme - Organic groups Most coenzymes are obtained from vitamins, can't be built. Cofactors that bond to enzyme with strong covalent bond are called prosthetic groups. |
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Prosthetic Groups
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Cofactors that bond to enzyme with strong covalent bond
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Nucleic Acids Elements
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C,H,O,N,P
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Nucleic Acids
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Polymers of subunits called nucleotides.
Nucleic acids (DNA,RNA) code all the information required by an organism to produce proteins and replicate. |
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Nucleotide Picture
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Picture
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Cell Theory (4)
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1) All living things are composed of cells.
2) The cell is the basic functional unit of life. 3) Cells arise only from pre-existing cells. 4) Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA. The genetic material is passed from parent to daugher cell. |
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Microscopy
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Increase in the apparent size of an object.
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Resolution
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Differentiation of two closely situated objects.
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Total Magnification in compound microscope.
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Total=Eyepiece*Objective
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Diaphragm
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Controls amount of light passing through specimen.
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Coarse adjustment
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Roughly focuses the image
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Fine adjustment
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Sharply focuses the image
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Compound light microscopy
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Two lense system
In general for non-living Staining is often used resulting in cell death. |
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Phase contrast microscopy
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Special type of light microscope that permits study of living cells.
Difference in refractive indexes creates contrast between cellular structures. |
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Electron Microscopy
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Beam of electrons to allow a thousandfold higher magnification that is possible with light.
Living specimen not possible. Must be fixed, sectioned, and sometimes stained with solutions of heavy metals. |
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Centrifugation
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Seperate cells or mixtures without destroying them in the process.
Heavier components will be lower. |
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Organelles
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Specialized components within the cell (structure and function).
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In a Nutshell:
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes |
Example:
Prokaryotes - Bacteria Eukaryotes - Protists, fungi, plants, animals Cell Wall: Prokaryotes - Present in all, composed of peptidoglycans Eukaryotes - Cell wall present in fungi and plants only Nucleus: Prokaryotes - No Nucleus Eukaryotes - Nucleus Present Ribosomes: Prokaryotes - Subunits=30S&50S Eukaryotes - Subunits=40S&60S Organelles: Prokaryotes - No membrane-bound organelles Eukaryotes - Membrane-bound organelles |
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Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
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Encloses Cell
Exhibits selective permeability Regulates passage in and out of cell Lipid bilayer leads to permeability for small nonpolar such as oxygen or small polar such as water. Small charged particles are usually able to cross through protein channels. Larger charged molecules cross membrane with assistance of carrier proteins. |
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Fluid mosaic model
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Cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded throughout.
The lipids and many of the proteins can move freely within the membrane. |
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Nucleus
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Controls activities of the cell, including cell division.
Surrounded by nuclear membrane. Contains the DNA, which is complexed with structural proteins called histones, to form chromosomes. Nucleolus is dense structure in nucleus where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis occurs. |
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Nucleolus
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Dense structure in nucleus where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis occurs.
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Ribosome
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Sites of protein production and synthesized by nucleolus.
Free ribosomes found within cytoplasm. Bound ribosomes line the outer membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum. |
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Network of membrane-enclosed spaces involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell, particularly those materials destined to be secreted by the cell.
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Golgi Apparatus
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Receives vesicles and their contents from the smooth ER, modifies them, repackages them into vesicles, and distributes to cell surface via exocytosis.
smooth ER -> modify -> repackage to vesicles -> distributes via exocytosis |
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Mitochondria
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Sites or aerobic respiration (suppliers of energy)
Bounded by an outer and inner phospholipid bilayer. |
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Cytoplasm
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Most of cells metabolic activity occurs here.
Transport within cytoplasm occurs by cyclosis. |
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Cyclosis
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Transport within cytoplasm occurs by cyclosis (streaming movement within the cell).
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Vacuoles and Vesicles
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Membrane bound sacs involved in the transport and storage of materials that are ingested, secreted, processed, or digested by the cell.
Vacuoles are larger than vesicles and more likely to be found in plant than in animal cells. |
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Centrioles
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Specialized microtubule involved in spindle organization during cell division and not bound by a membrane.
Animal cells usually have a pair of centrioles that are oriented at right angles to each other and lies in region called centrosome. Plant cells do no contain centrioles. |
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Lysosome
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Membrane bound vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes involved in intracellular digestion.
Break down material ingested by the cell. Injured cells can commit suicide by rupture of lysosome membrane releasing hydrolytic enzymes (autolysis) |
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Autolysis
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Cell suicide
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Cytoskeleton
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Composed of microtubules and microfilaments gives cell mechanical support, maintains shape, funtions in cell motility.
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Plants Cell differences from animal cells
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No centrosome
Presence of cell wall composed of cellulose Chloroplasts in many cells of green plants. Sites of snythesis of organic compounds. No lysosomes. Many vacuoles. Mature plants usually contain one large vacuole. |
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Transport methods across cell membrane
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Simple Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport |
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Simple Diffusion
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Net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradients.
Passive, requires no energy. |
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Osmosis
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Diffusion of water from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.
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Plasmolysis
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Cell shrivels due to hypertonic solution
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Isotonic Solution
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Cell and solution same solute concentration
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Hypotonic
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Cell solute concentration much greater than solution.
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Hypertonic
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Solution concentration much greater than cell.
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Lyse
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Bursting of cell.
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Types of Transport in a Nutshell
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Passive Diffusion:
Down Gradient No Carrier No energy required Facilitated Diffusion: Down gradient Carrier No energy required Active Transport: Against gradient Carrier Energy required |
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Facilitated diffusion
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Net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradient through special channels or carrier proteins in cell membrane.
Requires no energy. |
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Active transport
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Net movement of dissolved particles against their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins.
Requires energy. |
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Intracellular Circulation
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Brownian Movement - Movement of particles due to kinetic energy which spreads small suspended particles throughout the cyoplasm of the cell.
Cyclosis or Streaming: circular motion of cytoplasm around the cell transport molecules Endoplasmic reticulum: provides channels throughout the cytoplasm, provides direct continuous passageway from the plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane. |