Biology: Cell Structure And Function

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Cells fall into two categories

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Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic

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Organelles

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Any of the specialized structures within a cell that preform a specific function.

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Eukaryotic Cell

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The biggest of the two cell types. Characterised by the presence of a membrane enclosed nucleus and organelles.

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Bacteria

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Single-celled prokaryotes

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Things Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells have

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- Cell Membrane

- Cytoplasm

- Ribosomes

- DNA

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Cell Membrane

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Composed of phospholipids and proteins. Forms a boundary between the external environment and the cell's watery cytoplasm.

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Cytoplasm

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It separates inside from outside and literally defines the cell.

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Ribosomes

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Synthesize the proteins that are crucial to cell function, and all have DNA, the molecule of heredity. Create proteins in both Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells.

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DNA in Prokaryotic Cell

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DNA floats freely within the cells cytoplasm.

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DNA in Eukaryotic Cell

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DNA is housed within the nucleus.

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Nucleus

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The command center of a cell and houses DNA in Eukaryotic cells. Not found in Prokaryotic cells.

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Cell Wall

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A rigid structure, which encloses the cell membrane, is what allows bacteria to survive in watery environments.

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Osmosis

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Process in which water moves across all cell membrane in order to balance the solute concentration on each side of the membrane.

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Water will

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Predictably move from the solution with the lower solute concentration to the solution with the higher solute concentration.

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Isotonic

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Solute concentration is the same as the cell's cytoplasm.

No movement of water in or out of cell.

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Without a cell wall, bacteria

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Would burst due to hypotonic

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Peptidoglycan

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Makes bacterial cell wall rigid. A polymer made of sugars and amino acids that link to form a sheath around the cell.

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Penicillin

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Interferes with peptidoglycan and weakens the cell wall, causing it to burst due to osmosis.

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Other organisms that have a cell wall

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Plants and fungi

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Who discovered Penicillin?

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Alexander Fleming

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Who turned penicillin into antibacterial medicine?

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Ernst Chain (in 1940)

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Bacteria falls into two categories

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Gram-positive or Gram-negative

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Cell walls trap

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A dye known as Gram stain

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Examples of Gram positive bacteria penicillin can kill

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Staphylococcus and Streptococcus

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Staphylococcus

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Gram positive bacteria in which microbes cause staph infections.

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Streptococcus

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Gram-positive bacteria in which microbes cause strep throat.

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Examples of Gram-negitive bacteria that penicillin can not kill

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Escherichia coli and Salmonella

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Gram-negitive Bacteria

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Bacteria with cell walls that have an extra layer of lipids surrounding them.

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Extra Lipid Layer

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Prevents penicillin from reaching the peptidoglycan underneath.

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Beta-lactams

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Modern synthetic varieties of penicillin.

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How does streptomycin work

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By interfering with protein synthesis on bacterial ribosomes

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Note

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Because the human ribosome has a different structure or shape, the antibiotic cannot attach to it and disrupt its function.

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Phospholipid Structure

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Molecules that make up the bulk of the cell membrane. Hydrophilic parts include choline group and phosphate group connected to glycerol, which are connected to fatty acids (hydrophobic tail).

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Proteins

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Sit nestled in the lipid bylayer, where they preform a variety of function. Some form channels in the membrane used for transporting nutrients in and wastes out.

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Membrane

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Semipermeable. Only certain substances can cross freely from one side to the other.

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Lipid Bilayer

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Largely impermeable to large molecules, like glucose and hydrophilic (or charged) substances, like sodium ions. Weakly permeable to water. Only small, uncharged molecules like oxygen (O2) can cross easily through simple diffusion.

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Diffusion

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The natural tendency of dissolved substances to move from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration.

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Note

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No additional energy is required for simple diffusion beyond what is stored in the concentration difference, or gradient itself.

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Why is oxygen needed in cells?

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To convert chemical energy from the diet into usable energy to carry out cellular work.

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Transport Proteins

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Sit in the membrane bilayer with one of their ends outside the cell and other inside it. Act as a kind of channel, carrier, or pump by providing passageways for large or hydrophilic molecules to cross the membrane.

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Note

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Only specific transport proteins will transport specific molecules.

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Facilitated Diffusion

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When a substance moves downhill (with concentration gradient) by transport protein from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Requires no additional energy.

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Penicillin and Streptomycin move through

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Facilitated Diffusion

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Osmosis

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Relies on both simple diffusion through lipid bilayer and facilitated diffusion through transport proteins to passively move through the membrane.

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Active Transport

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Some bacteria have transport proteins that can activity pump the antibiotic out of the cell. It is a counteroffensive measure. Proteins pump a substance uphil from an area of low concentration to higher concentration. Requires chemical energy.

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Other way bacteria fights against antibiotics

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Chemically breaking down the antibiotic with enzymes.

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NOTE

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Plant cells and animal cells are also Eukaryotic.

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Note

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Animal and Plant cells are Eukaryotic cells with cell walls

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Organelles of a Plant Cell

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Water vacuole

Nucleus

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Ribosome

Mitochondrion

Golgi apparatus

Lysosome

Cellulose Cell Wall

Chloroplast

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Organelles of a Animal Cell

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Nucleus

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Ribosome

Mitchondrion

Golgi apparatus

Lysosome

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Nuclear Envelope

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A double membrane made of two lipid bilayers dotted by small openings called pores. Surrounds the nucleus.

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Function of the Nucleus

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Encloses the cell's DNA and acts as a kind of control center. Important reactions for interpreting the generic instructions contained in DNA take place here, as well as manufacture of ribosomes.

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Mitochondria

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Are the cell's power plants. They use oxygen to extract energy from food and convert that energy into a useful form.

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How can mitochondria cause a human to die?

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If a mitochondria inheret or develop defects.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

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A vast network of membranes that serves as a kind of assembly line for the manufacture of proteins and lipids. Found within the ribosome.

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Part of the ER that makes Lipids

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Smooth ER

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Think of "lipid" as "liquid"

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Part of the ER that makes proteins?

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Rough; studded

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Golgi Apparatus

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Newly made proteins travel here from the ER. It packs the protein into "cargo" into vesicles and then ships then to specific destinations, such as the cell membrane, other organelles, and the bloodstream.

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Chloroplast

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Responsible for photosynthesis in plants.

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Lysosomes

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Cell's recycling centers, digest and recycle molecules.

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Cytoskeleton

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Vast network of protein fibers. Allows cells to move and maintain their shape.

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Note

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Prokaryotic cells carry out functions similar to Eukaryotic cells for energy conversion, but everything happens in the cytoplasm.

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Endosymbiosis

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Once free living Prokaryotic cells became incorporated-en-engulfed-by other free-living Prokaryotic cells.

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Mitchondria and Choloplast Similar to Prokaryotic Cells

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Circular strands of DNA, ribosomes, and they divide in order to reproduce.

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Steps of the Golgi Apparatus

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1. Transport vesicles deliver proteins from the rough ER

2. As the proteins make their way through, they are processed to complete their structure and identify them for transport to specific locations in the cell.

3. Proteins are packaged into transport vesicles which deliver the proteins into their final destination.

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Nuclear, ER, and Golgi Apparatus Function together

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1. Nucleus provides instructions for protein production.

2. Proteins are made in the ER and packaged into vesciles for transport to the Golgi Apparatus.

3. Proteins receive final modifications in the Golgi Apparatus. They are packaged into vesciles for transport to the site of protein function.

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Note

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Mitochondria has an outer and inner membrane.

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Note

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Animals, plants, fungi, and protozoans are Eukaryotic cells.

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Why are antibiotics such a penicillin useless to the cold and flu?

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Cold and flu come from viruses, not bacteria.

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According to cell theory, viruses

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Are not alive and can't be killed with antibiotics.

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What is necessary for osmosis to occur?

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A semipermeable membrane, water, and high solute and low solute concentrations opposite of each other.

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Active Transport

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The energy-requiring process by which solutes are pumped from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration with help of transport proteins.

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Gram-Positive

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Refers to bacteria with a cell that includes a thick layer of peptidoglycan that retains the Gram-stain.

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Cell Membrane

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A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that form the boundary of all cells.

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Hypertonic

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Describes a solution surrounding a cell that has a higher concentration of solutes than the cell.

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Cell Wall

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A rigid structure enclosing the cell membrane of some cells that helps the cell maintain its shape.

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Hypotonic

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Describes a solution surrounding a cell that has a lower concentration of solutes than the cell.

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Cytoplasm

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A gelatinous, aqueous interior of all cells.

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Isotonic

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Describes a solution surrounding a cell that has the same solute concentration as the cell.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

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A network of membranes in Eukaryotic cells where proteins and lipids are synthesized

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Lysosomes

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An organelle in Eukaryotic cells filled with enzymes that can degrade worn-out cellular structures.

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Eukaryote

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Characterized by the presence of a membraneenclosed nucleus and organelles.

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Mitochondria

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Membrane-bound organelles responsible for important energy conversion reactions in eukaryotes

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Golgi Apparatus

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An organelle made up of stacked membrane enclosed discs that packages proteins and prepares them for transport.

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Nuclear Envelope

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A double membrane surrounding the nucleus a Eukaryotic cell.

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Antibiotics

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Chemicals that either kill bacteria or slow their growth by interfering with the functions of essential bacterial cell structures.

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Nucleus

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An organelle in Eukaryotic cells that contains genetic material.

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Chloroplast

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The organelle in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs.

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Organelles

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The membrane-bound compartments of Eukaryotic cells that carry out specific functions.

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Endosymbiosis

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The scientific theory that free-living prokaryotic cells engulf other free-living prokaryotic cells billions of years ago, forming eukaryotic organelles suggest mitochondria and chloroplast.

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Osmosis

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The diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.

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Cell theory

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The concept that all living organisms are made of cells and that cells are formed by the reproduction of existing cells.

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Cytoskeleton

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A network of protein fibers in Eukaryotic cells that provide structure and facilitates cell movement.

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Facilitated Diffusion

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The process by which large or hydrophilic solutes move across a membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration with the help of transport proteins; does not require energy.

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Gram-negitive

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The first two bacteria with the cell wall includes a thin layer of peptidoglycan surrounded by an outer lipid membrane that does not retain the Gram stain.

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Peptidoglycan

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Macromolecule found in all bacterial cell walls that confers rigidity.

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Ribosome

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A complex of RNA and proteins that carry out protein synthesis in all cells.

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Simple Diffusion

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The movement of small, hydrophobic molecules across a membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration; does not require energy.

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Transport Proteins

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Proteins involved in the movement of molecules across the cell membrane.

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Hypertonic

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Cells shrivle up

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Hypotonic

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Cells swell up

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Note

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Gram-negitive under a microscope appear pinkish red

Gram-positive under a microscope appear blue or violet.