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307 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is a monomer |
Smaller units from which larger molecules are made |
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What is a polymer |
A molecule made of many monomers joined together |
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Three examples of a monomer |
Carbohydrate , amino acid, nucleotide |
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What is a condensation reaction |
The process of joining two molecules by a chemical bond using the removal of water |
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What is a hydrolysis reaction |
The process of breaking a chemical bond between molecules using water and energy |
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Name three monosaccharides |
Glucose, fructose, galactose |
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What bond is formed between monosaccharides |
Glycosidic Bond |
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Which monosaccharides is maltose made from |
Glucose and glucose |
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Which monosaccharides is lactose produced from |
Glucose and galactose |
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Which monosaccharides form sucrose |
Glucose and fructose |
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What is a disaccharide molecule |
A molecule made of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond |
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What is an isomer |
Molecule with the same formula (atoms) but different arrangements |
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Difference between alpha and beta glucose |
The OH and H |
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What is a polysaccharide |
A chain of many monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds |
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How to test for a reducing sugar |
Add benedicts reagent Boil in water bath Positive = changes from blue to red precipitate Qualitative = colour Quantitative = weigh precipitate, colourimeter |
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How to test for a non reducing sugar |
Conduct test if first try is negative Add hydrochloric acid Heat in water bath Neutralise with sodium hydrocarbonate Repete benedicts regent test |
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What two molecules is starch made from |
Amylopectin and amylose |
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Properties of starch that make is a good energy storage molecule in plants |
Amylose = helix, compact for space and storage Amylopectin = branched alpha glucose, easily hydrolysed to release energy quickly Insoluble so does not affect osmosis |
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How to test of starch |
Add iodine, if turns orange to blue then starch present |
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Why is glycogen a suitable energy storage molecule on humans |
Highly branched alpha glucose for quick energy release Highly compact for space |
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Why is cellulose good for plant walls |
Long unbrached beta glucose form chains, weak hydrogen bonds form microfibrils. Strong for structure |
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Name two types of lipids |
Tri glycride and phospholipid |
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What 4 molecules form a tri glycride |
One glycerol and three fatty acids |
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What is the molecular formula of a fatty acid |
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What bond forms between a fatty acid and a glycerol molecule |
An ester bond |
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Molecular drawing of a triglyceride |
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Difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon tails |
Unsaturated = one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms Saturated = no double bonds |
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Difference between phospholipid and triglyceride molecule |
One fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate |
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Is the hydrocarbon tail of a lipid phydrophobic or hydrophilic |
Hydrophobic |
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Main use of tryglycerides and why |
Energy storage as higher energy than carbohydrates Energy stores in bods, released when broken Insoluble so don't affect osmosis Hydrophobic tails so form droplets |
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Main use of phospholipid and why |
Membrane due to hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads a bilayer is produced that acts as barrier + cells can controll what enters and exits |
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How to test for lipids |
Add ethanol to solution Shake Add water White precipitate = lipid present |
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What is a dipeptide |
A molecule of two amino acids joined by a peptide bond |
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What bod is formed between amino acids |
A peptide bond |
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What is a polypeptide |
A chain of amino acids joined by a peptide bond |
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Molecular drawing of an amino acid |
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How many amino acids are there |
20 |
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What is the only difference between amino acids |
Their variable R group |
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What are the four structural levels of a protein (names only) |
Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure Quaternary structure |
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What is a proteins primary structure |
The order and sequence of amino acids |
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What is a proteins secondary structure |
Alpha helix or beta pleated sheet formed by hydrogen bonds |
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What is a proteins Tertiary structure |
Protein is coiled and folded further due to formation of disulfide bridges, ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds, affects is shape and 3D formation |
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What is proteins Quaternary structure |
Formation of several polypeptide held together by bonds affect the final 3D struture of a complex molecule |
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Four main functions of protein |
Y (antibodies) M (transport proteins) C (enzymes) A (structure) |
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How to use the biuret test for proteins |
Make the solution alkaline add sodium hydroxide Add copper (ll) sulfate solution Purple of present blue if not |
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What is a catalysist? |
A molecule that lowers activation energy required for reactions without being used up in the reaction itself |
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Why do enzymes lower the activation energy needed for reactions |
Hold substrates together reducing repulsion so they can form a bond Strains bond so they break more easily |
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What is the lock and key model |
Enzymes active site eaxctally complementary in shape to the substrate |
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What is the induced fit model |
Enzyme active sight is not complementary in shape to the substrate but changes shape when it binds to it |
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What is it called when and substrate fills an active site |
Enzyme substrate complex |
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Why do enzymes only catalyse one reaction |
Tertiary structure specific in shape to onw substrate, only forms E-s complexes with complementary substrate |
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What four things effect enzyme activity |
Temperature PH level Enzyme concentration Substrate concentration |
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Why does temperature affect enzyme activity |
Increased kinetic energy more collisions + e-s complexes Breaks hydrogen bonds permenantly denaturing active site |
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Why does pH affect enzyme activity |
H+ ions temporarily break hydrogen bonds and denture enzymes |
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How does enzyme concentration effect rate of reaction |
More enzyms means more collisions more e-s complexes formed, stops if substrates limited |
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How does substrate concentration effect rate of reactions |
More substrate means more collisions and e-s formed untill saturation point when all enzyme active sites are filled |
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What does a competitive inhibitor do to the graph of rate of reaction |
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How does a competitive inhibitor affect reactions |
Similar in shape to substrate, competes to fill active site, less e-s complexes formed reaction rate slows |
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Why at the end of the graph does the competitive inhibitor not make a difference |
Increased substrate means more likely to collide to enzyme than inhibitor, percentage of solution Is too small to make a difference |
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What does a non competitive inhibitor do to the graph of rate of reaction |
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If less competitive inhibitor was added would the graph move up or down |
Up |
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How does a non competitive inhibitor work |
Binds to enzyme not at binding site Alters Tertiary structure no longer complementary can't form e-s complexes rate if reaction plateaus |
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What two ways can you measure rate of enzyme controlled reactions |
How much and fast product is produced How fast the substrate is used |
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What does hydrogen peroxide break down into |
Water and oxygen |
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How do you know what is the limiting factor of an enzyme controlled reaction |
Whichever increases that causes the rate of reaction to increase is its limiting factor Substrate. Enzymes. |
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Know how to create a tangent |
Draw a triangle change in y over change in x |
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What does DNA stand for |
Deoxy ribonucleic acid |
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What does RNA stand for |
Ribonucleic acid |
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What is a nucleotide |
A biological molecule, a monomer that forms polynucleotides |
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Draw a DNA nucleotide |
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What are the four possible bases of a DNA nucleotide |
Tymine, guanine, cytosine, adenine |
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Draw a RNA nucleotide |
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Name four differences between a DNA and RNA nucleotide |
Uracil not tymine Ribose not deoxy ribose DNA is long RNA is short DNA is double strange RNA is single stranded |
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What are ribosomes made of |
RNA and proteins |
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What does DNA do |
Holds all genetic information |
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What does RNA do |
Transfers genetic information from DNA to ribosomes |
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What type of reaction joins two nucleotides |
Condensation |
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What is the bond between two nucleotides called |
Phospodiester bond |
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Which parts form the sugar phosphate backbone |
Pentose sugar and phosphate group |
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What bonds form between bases of DNA stands |
Hydrogen |
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How many hydrogen bonds form between adenine and guanine |
2 |
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How many bonds form between cytosine and guanine |
3 |
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What is complementary base pairing |
Bases can only join with one particular partner |
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Six important factors of DNA |
Double stranded Sugar phosphate backbone protects bases Unidirectional only read one way Antiparallell only join in opposite directions Helix so compact Codes for amino acids |
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Why did scientists think that proteins used to carry genetic information |
DNA is simple and basic so was unlikely to be able to control such complexities |
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What type of replication does DNA replicate by |
Semi Conservative |
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Why does DNA replicate |
So that each cell has its own complete stand of DNA |
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Using keywords describe DNA replication |
DNA helicase breaks bonds Unwinds one becomes template stand Free floating nucleotides attracted to exposed bases Complematary base pairings DNA polymerase condensation reaction to form phospodiester bonds One template one new |
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Is DNA made from five prime to three prime or three prime to five prime |
Five prime to three but template is read from three to five |
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What is an isotope |
Different forms of the same genes |
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Draw a ATP molecule |
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Which enzyme forms ATP from ADP and Pi |
ATP synthase |
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What molecules is ATP made from |
ADP and pi |
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What type of reaction forms ATP from ADP and pi |
Condensation reaction |
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What is released when ATP is hydrolysed |
Energy ADP and pi |
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What enzyme causes ATP to form ADP and pi |
ATP hydrolase |
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What does ATP and ADP stand for |
Adenosine tri phosphate Adenosine Di phosphate |
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Why is ATP hydrolysis couples with other reactions |
Energy released can be used directly no. Lost as heat |
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What is phosphorylation |
The addition of an inorganic phosphate added to a molecule to make it more reactive |
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Draw a simple structure of water |
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Name five reasons why water is important to organisms |
It's a metabolite E.g condensation and hydrolysis reaction It is a solvent so substances can disolve Has a high heat capacity so can't heat up quickly High latent heat of vaporisation so heat lost through sweat Has strong cohesion allows for flow and tension |
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Name four inorganic ions and their charge |
H+ PO 3- 4 Fe2+ Na+ |
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What is an ion |
An atom that has an electrical charge |
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What is an ion with a positive and negative charge called |
Cation = pos Anion = neg |
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What is an inorganic compound |
Something that doesn't contain carbon |
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Why are iron ions important |
Fe2+ in heamoglobin binds to form oxyheamoglobin |
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Why are hydrogen ions important |
H+ determines pH level, lower = acidic |
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Why are sodium ions important |
Transport glucose via Co transport Nervous system |
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Why are phosphate ions important |
Phoaporylate items to be more reactive Forms ATP Joins DNA strands |
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Name every organelle |
Chloroplast Golgi body Smooth ER Ribosomes Lysosomes Rough ER Vacuole Wall Vesicles Membrane Nucleus Mitochondria |
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Which one has a Nucleus prokaryote or eukaryote |
Prokaryote |
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Things that a plant cell has but not an animal cell |
Chloroplast chlorophyll stroma Vacuole wall plasmodrsmata |
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Cell wall of a fungal cell is made of what and what plant organelle don't they have |
Chitin, chloroplast |
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How many chloroplast does a algal cell have |
One |
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What is the cells membrane purpose |
Controls what enters and leaves, displays receptor proteins |
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Name for mini things in a Nucleus |
Nucleolus ( makes ribosomes) Nuclear pour Nuclear envelope Chromatin |
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What is Mitochondria for in a cell and important structures in it |
Site of aerobic respiration in the cell to release energy from glucose Matrix = fluid Crista = increase S.A |
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Draw a chloroplast |
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Use of the golgi body |
Process and package lipids and proteins |
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What do Vesicles do |
Store lipids and proteins and fuses with membrane to release them to blood |
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What's in Lysosomes |
Lysozyme, enzymes |
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What is the function of a ribosome and what are they made of |
Synthesises proteins, RNA and proteins |
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What does rough endoplasmic rectiluim do |
Folds and processes proteins / ribosomes on it synthesise them |
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What does smooth endoplasmic rectiluim do |
Synthesises and processes lipids |
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What is the use of a cell walk |
Supports cell an prevents shape change |
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What is the use of a cell Vacuole what is its membrane calld |
Maintains pressure isolates unwanted chemicals tonoplast |
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What is the term called when a cell is adapted for a specific function |
Differentiation, specialisation |
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What is a tissue |
Group of cells working together to preform a specific function |
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What is an organ |
Grip of different tissues working together to preform a specific function |
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Five ways a prokaryote (bacteria) cell is different |
Flafellum Slime capsule Cell wall Circular DNA No histone proteins Plasmids |
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Draw a virus what does it have and not have |
No plasma membrane, ribosomes or cytoplasm Does have RNA capsid enzymes and attachment proteins |
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Explain what happens during binary fission |
Circular DNA replicates Moves to opposite poles Cytokenisis Two daughter cells different no of Plasmids |
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How to measure magnification |
Magnification = image / real object |
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Two main types of eloctoscope |
Optical light and electon |
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Why is optical microscope worse |
Light is bigger wavelength Needs to be thin Smaller resolution Smaller magnification |
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What cant you see in an optical microscope |
Ribosomes, endoplasmic rectiluim and Lysosomes maybe Mitochondria |
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Why is electon microscope better |
Better resolution Higher magnification Smaller organelles seen |
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What are the three stages of cell fractionation |
Homogenisation Filtration Ultracentrifugation |
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Why are cells homogenised |
To break open cell / membrane and release organelles |
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Why are cells filtered |
To remove unbroken and large debris |
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Two parts of a centrifuged solution |
Pellet = bottom Supernatant = top |
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What order do the organelles get separated in during Ultracentrifugation |
Nucleus, Mitochondria, Lysosomes, ER, robosomes |
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Why is a cold isotonic buffer used |
Cold = reduced enzyme activity Isotonic = prevents damage by osmosis Buffer = prevents damage maintains pH |
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What are the four names of the the stages of mitosis |
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase |
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What happens during prophase |
Chromosomes condense ( become visible) Centroles move to poles release spindle Nuclear envelope breaks down |
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What happens during Metaphase |
Chromosomes with two chromatids attach / line up on spindle |
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What happens in Anaphase |
Centromeres split cromatids move to opposite poles, create v shape |
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What happens during Telophase |
Nuclear envelope forms , Cytokenisis |
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If of 10 cells of 100 going through mitosis are in Metaphase and the cell cycles is 15 hours how long is methaphase? |
90 mins |
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Do cancer cells have slowed or uncontrolled cell devision? |
Rapid uncontrolled |
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What do you put on a temporary mount |
A cover slip |
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How to measure mitotic index / what is it |
Percentage of cells in mitosis Mitotic index = no of cells with vidible chromosomes / total no of observed cells |
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How to use a graticule |
Graticule in eyepiece Micro miter on stage Calibrate Graticule ( find out how big one Graticule unit is in Um) View specimen count how many Graticule units Times by measures um |
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Why use a Graticule measurment |
Can't have micrometer next to specimen Different magnifications |
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Why are membranes fluid mosoac |
Fluid as not fixed / constantly moving Mosic as had proteins and cholesterol |
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Why is cholesterol in the membrane |
To add structure and stability and restrict movement |
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What are the two types of electon microscope called |
Transmission and scanning |
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Differences between transmission and scanning microscopes |
TEM= electromagnets to focus through specimen, dencer means thicker SEM= knocks off electrons, 3d surface image, thick specimens, Lower resolution |
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What is resolution |
The ability to distinguish between two points |
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What is magnification |
How many times bigger the object image can be made |
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During homogenization why is an isotonic cold buffer used |
Cold reduced enzyme activity Isotonic prevents water dameaf evy osmosis Buffer maintains pH level |
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During cell fractionation what are the three steps |
Homogenisation Filtration Ultracentrifugation |
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Why are cell homogenised |
To break cells open / membrane and release organelles |
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Why are cells filterd before Ultracentrifugation |
To remove large cell debris |
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Name 2 key words of Ultracentrifugation |
Centrifuge Pellet =bottom Supernatant =top Speed |
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Orger in which organelles arrive during centrifugation |
Nuclei Mitochondria Lysosomes ER Ribosomes |
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Four stages of cell cycle |
Mitosis, gap phase one, synthesis, gap phase two |
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What happens during gap phase one |
Cell grows new organelles and proteins made |
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What happens during synthesis of the cell cycle |
DNA replicated |
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What happens during gap phase two |
Proteins needed for cell division made |
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What are proteins that go all the way though the membrane called and what's the other type |
Intrinsic = through Extrinsic = half |
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Draw the graph of membrane permeability vs temperature |
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Explain this graph |
Below 0 deform and thaw = holes Increase temp more kinetic energy Above 40 denture and holes |
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What is simple diffusion |
Passive net movement of particles from and area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration through membrane |
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Difference between some and facilitated diffusion, and what types of molecules use facilitated |
Use of proteins Non lipid soluble Big Charged |
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Explain how a carrier protein works and what types of molecules use it |
Molecule attaches to it Changes shape Releases onto opposite side Large ones |
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Explain how a carrier protein works and its molecules |
Diffuse down protein, charged molecules |
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Four things that affect the rate of diffusion |
Concentration gradient Diffusion distance / thickness Surface area Temperature |
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Two main things that increase facilitated diffusion rates |
Concentration gradient Number of proteins |
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Definition of osmosis |
Movement of water from an area of higher water potential to an area of more negative water potential through a partially permeable membrane |
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Three factors affecting osmotic rate |
Water potential difference Thickness/ pathways Surface area |
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Difference between an serial dilution and serial |
Dilution series = all from original know pure concentration
Serila dilution = dilute each tube using solution from the previous tube |
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How to create a calibration curve and use it |
Test know concentrations of something Plot on graph name x,y axis Plot points and draw line Use graph to find corasponding units |
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What is active transport |
The use of energy to move a molecule up its concentration gradient |
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Which protein is involved in active transport |
Carrier |
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Differences between active transport and diffusion |
Requires ATP / energy Up concentration gradient |
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What are cotransporters and how do they work |
Bind two molecules together movement of one molecule down its concentration gradient takes the other molecule up its concentration gradient |
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What factors affect active transport rate |
Speed of proteins No of proteins Availability of ATP / respiration rate |
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How is glucose absorbed from the lumen |
Sodium ions actively transported out of cell to blood Creates concentration gradient Joins to glucose brings it up its concentration gradient Glucose diffuse into blood |
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Why are molecules digested before they can be absorbed |
To large to go though membrane / proteins |
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What three enzymes break down carbohydrates |
Amylase, maltase and membrane bound disaccaraidases |
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How does amylase digest starch |
Hydrolysed glycosidic bond between monosaccharides using water |
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Where is amylase produced |
Salivary glands, pancreas (realised to small intestine) |
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How do monosaccharides enter the ileum |
Transporter proteins |
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How are lipids broken down |
Lipase hydrolysed ester bonds to form fatty acids and monoglycerides |
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What is bikes role in lipid absorption and where is it produced |
Emulsifiers lipids, nutalised stomach acid and produced in Pancras |
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How are lipids absorbed |
Bike salts create smaller droplets have bigger surface area more area for lipase Micilles formed diffuse though membrane |
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What three enzymes digest polypeptide |
Endopeptidases, Endopeptidases and dipeptidases |
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How are amino acids absorbed |
By cotransporters |
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What are antigens |
Molecules / proteins that can trigger an immune response |
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The four stages of the immune response |
Phagocytosis Activate t cells Activate b cells Plasma cells |
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What happens in phagocytosis |
Phagocyte recognises foreign antigen Engulfs it to Phagocytic Vacuole Lysosomes and lysozyme digest it Becomes antigen presenting cell |
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What do phagocytes first stimulate |
Helper t cells |
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What do helper t cells do |
Receptor proteins on surface, bind to complementary antigen , activates the cell to stimulate phagocytes / cytoxic t cells / b cells |
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What do b cells do |
Covered in antibodies, specific completer one binds, clonal selection, replicates to plasma cells clonal expansion |
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What do plasma cells do |
Synthesise and secrete complematary antigens |
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Draw an antibody and what do they do |
Bind to antigen, agglutination easier to engulf |
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I'v the immune responce what is cellular what is humoral |
Cellular = phagocytes, t cells Humoral = b cells monoclonal antibodies |
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What is the primary immune response and its traits |
Body first exposed to antigen Slow response as not many b cells Symptoms felt Memory cells created |
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What is a secondary immune response and its traits |
Pathogen enters body Memory cells recognise Clonal selection + expansion = faster Destroys pathogen before symptoms felt More antibodies than primary exposure |
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How do vaccines work |
Dead inactive pathogen / antigen Immune response occurs No symptoms felt Immunity gained |
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What is antigenic variations and how does it help pathogens |
Change surface antigens Memory cells no longer recognize Primary responses not secondary Difficult to develop vaccines |
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Differences between active and passive Immunity |
Requires exposure = active No exposure = passive Slow = active Instant = passive memory cells produced = active No memory cells = passive Long term protection = active Short term = passive |
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How can monoclonal antibodies be used to treat specific cells |
Proteins so unique Tertiary Only completer to one surface antigen Only bonds to cells with that antigen E. G cancer |
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How do pregnancy tests work |
Antibodies bound to beads Pee added binds to beads More antibodies fixed to plate If pregnant then pee binds to both antigens blue beads remain and line seen |
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Describe the direct ELISA test and what does it stand for |
Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay Antibody attached to enzyme Cells fixed to bottom of base Base washed If antigen present antibody and enzyme remain Substrate added and if colour change then antigen present |
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Ethical issues surrounding vaccines |
Tested on animals Human testing is dangerous Side effects Epidemic who gets it is unfair |
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What does hiv and aids stand for |
Human immunodeficiency virus Aquired immunodeficiency syndrome |
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Draw a structure of hiv |
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How does hiv replicate |
Attaches to surface protein on t cell membrane Enters cell RNA makes cDNA Added to DNA DNA produces genes and makes new hiv cells Buda off with cell membrane and surface proteins |
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Why don't antibiotics work against viruses |
Antigens on surface hidden by host cell membrane so not recognised Don't have specific enzymes and ribosomes |
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What substances to organisms need to Exchange with the environment |
Oxygen, nutrients, waste product, co2, urea same temp |
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Smaller animals have higher or lower suface area to volume ratio |
Higher more of their surface on desplayed |
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Difference between bahavioural physiological adaptations to aid exchange |
Size and shape = anatomical Kidney effectivity = physiological High energy foods = behavioural Temperature of habitat = behavioural Fur = anotatomical |
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Ways in which fish are adapted for gas exchange |
Gill filaments and lamelae = surface area Thing blood capillaries = diffusion distance Counter current flow = maintains concentration gradient so o2 diffused into blood down whole length more effective |
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How insect are adapted for gas exchange |
Pores called spiracles to teachea and tracheoles, thin + many = surface area and diffusion distance Rhythmic abdominal pumping = moves air = maintains concentration gradient |
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Draw a cross section of a plant leaf |
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How insects minamise water loss |
Close spiracles , waterproof waxy cuticle, thin hairs trap water |
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What are plants adapted to minamise water loss called |
Xerophytic |
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Xerophytic adaptations |
Sunken stoma Hair Curled leaves wind Reduced stoma number Waxy thick cuticle |
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Draw and labels lungs and mucles |
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Describe inspiration |
Diaphragm contacts External intercostal muscles contract Increase volume Decrease pressure Air moves down pressure gradent Active process |
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Describe expiration |
External intercostal and diaphragm relax Decrease volume Increase pressure Air moves down pressure gradient Passive |
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Describe forced expiration |
External and draphram mucles contact Internal intercostal muscles contract Smaller volume |
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How is the aveoile adapted for gas exchange |
Thin one cell thick diffusion distance , many for surface area, ventilation maintains concentration gradient |
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Is endothelium in or out |
Endothelium = the middle = in = blood capillaries |
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What is tidal volume |
Volume of air each breath |
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What is Ventilation rate |
Number of breaths per min |
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What is forced expiratory volume |
Max volume of air breathed out in one sec |
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What is forced vital capacity |
Max volume of air breathed out In one breath |
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How does a higher partial pressure of oxygen effect heamoglobin affinity for oxygen |
Oxygen loads at an area of high partial pressure Oxygen disassociate at an area of Lower partial pressure |
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Why is the o2 disassociation curve s shaped |
Harder for first o2 to bind Changes Tertiary structure Easier for second and third to bind Small change in pp affect affinity for O2 |
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Which way does the disassociation curve move at a higher pp of co2 |
Higher pp of co2 means lower affinity so moves right |
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Draw the circulatory system and label Al the arteries and veins you need to |
Needed = aorta Phulmonary vein Renal artery and vein Vena cava Pulmonary artery |
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Draw a cross section of an artery and label how it's adapted |
Elastic tissue maintains pressure and controls volume |
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Draw a vein how us it adapted |
Valves stop baxkflow helped by neighbouring muscle contraction |
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How is tissue fluid formed |
Higher hydrostatic pressure, outward pressure forces water, o2, sugars out Proteins and blood cells too big Volume decrease pressure decreases Osmotic effect water moves back on by osmosis Excess fluid drained by lymphatic system |
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Draw a heart with labels |
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Describe the cardiac cycle not how a heartbeat is initiated |
1 atria contract 1.1 av Vale open 2 blood moves to ventricles 2.1 av valve close 2.2 s.l valves open 3 artia relax ventricles contract from bottom 4 blood moves to arteries 4.1 s. L valves close 5 Both contact atria fill Refer to pressure |
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What is an anthroma |
White blood cells and lipids clump to form fatty streak. Endothelium increased resistance |
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What is an aneurysm |
Balloon swelling of artery |
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What are the arteries around the heart called |
Coronary arteries, myocardial Infarctuon is the blockage of them |
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Name 2 factors effecting cardiovascular desiese and how |
High cholesterol more fatty acids and atheromas also salt equals higher pressure Cigarette = high blood pressure and damage artery walls |
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What is transported in the xylem and phloem |
Xylem is water Pholem is solutes |
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Draw and lable the xylem |
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Describe transpiration |
Cohesion of water molecules Adehion to wall Tension causes pull suction Continuos water colum Hydrogen bonds Water evaporates from leaf |
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Four factors affecting transpiration rate |
Wind = higher = continuous concentration difference so faster Humidity = higher = smaller concentration difference = slower Temp = higher = more energy so evaporate so faster Light = higher = stoma open so faster transpiration rate |
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Draw a phloem and label it |
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Mass flow hypothesis |
Solutes actively transported in by companion cells Lowers water potential Water moves in by osmosis Increase pressure Causes gradient moves down Solutes actively transported out Water moves out by osmosis |
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Evidence for mass flow |
Ring of bark bulk Radioactive labled carbon Aphid heads cause drip Metabolic inhibitor |
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Evidence against mass flow |
Many sinks Sive plates slow down progress |
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Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic DNA |
Circular. Linear No proteins, histone proteins Plasmids, no Plasmids |
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What is a gene |
Sequence of DNA bases that code for proteins |
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What is a genome |
The complete set of genes in a cell |
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What is a proteome |
The full range of proteins the cell is able to produce |
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Which one is used rxon a or intros |
Exons bc Introns arnt in at the moment |
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What is an allele |
For rent version of the same gene |
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What do you call two marching chromatids |
Homologous pair |
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The gene is on the same what of two chromosomes |
Locus |
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Draw transfer RNA |
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What happens during transcription |
DNA helicase breaks bond unravels RNA polymerase joins Free floating RNA nucleotides Complematary base pairing Template strand Exposed bases Rna polymerase hydrolysed phospodiester bonds Stop code reached Disassociated Pre mrna |
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What happens to pre mrna |
It is spliced |
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What happens during translation |
mRNA associates with ribosome tRNA carries amino acids to it ATP used to bind aa and tRNA TRNA has anticodon complementary to base triplet it binds to Aa joined by peptide bond Formed by ribosome Continues until stop code Read many times |
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Which comes first translation or transcription |
Transcription |
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Properties of the genetic code |
Degenerate, many for one amino acid Universal, sma win all organisms Non overlapping, base only read once Unidirectional, only reads one way |
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What are gametes |
Haploid cells used for fertilisation |
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What happens in meiosis |
Meiosis one, homologous pairs align in centre and move to opposite cells Meiosis two, sister chromatids separated like mitosis |
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Two ways that meiosis causes variation |
Independent segregation, homologous pairs align in any order Crossing over, join at locus rejoin to doffent chromosome, New combination of alleles |
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How many chromosomes does a human have |
46 |
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As types of mutations |
Substitution and deletion Could be silent or not Frame shift and degenerate |
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What are mutagenic agents |
Increase rate of mutations Smoking Uv rays Radiation |
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What is genetic diversity |
Number of different alleles in a species or population |
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How is gone tic diversity increased |
Mutations Immigration |
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What is a genetic bottle neck |
Event causes reduction In population Reduced gene pool Reduced genetic diversity Reproduce frow a few individuals |
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Natural selection |
Different reproduction success Selection pressure Advantageous alleles Greater likelyhood of passing on alleles Frequency increases Advantageous allele becomes more popular |
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Difference between behavioural physiological and anatomical adaptations |
Behavioural = play dead hide Physiological = can't see kidney storage heart rate ect Anatomical = see fur, blubber of fat |
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Two As selections |
Directional selection Stabalising selection |
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Directional selection |
Individuals with extreme alleles and features more likely to survive E. G White in snow not grey or black Others killed More reproductive success Selection pressure More frequent |
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Stabalising selection |
Middle range less extreme more likely to survive Dora's advantage to be big or too small ect Selection pressure Advantageous alleles successful reproduction Middle all frequency increase |
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Aseptic techniques |
Prevent unwanted bacteria Disinfectant in surfaces Bunsen flame caries up Sterilise in flame inoculation loop Flame neck of bottle Eyes gloves |
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What is phylogeny |
Study of evolutionary history of organisms and how closely related they are |
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Basic shape of a phylogeny tree |
Closer the branch the closer they're related |
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What is taxonomy |
Science of classification involves naming them |
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The eight taxa names |
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species |
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What is a hierarchy |
Largest at top splits into smallest at bottom Organisms only belong to one group no overlapping |
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What is a species |
Group of similar offspring that can Reproduce to produce fertile of spring |
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How to do the binomial naming system |
First part is the Genus has a capital letter Second is the species always lowercase, italics or underlined |
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How can cortrship behaviours be helpful to species and classification |
Attract same species Mature fertile age Colesly related more similar mating ritual |
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Three ways of clarifying evelotulionary relationship |
Genome sequencing for similarities Protein sequencing for similarities Immunological responses |
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What is variation |
Differences between individuals within a species or between a species |
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What is a standard deviation |
How much the values in a sample vary |
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What is biodiversity |
Variety of living organisms in an area |
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What is a habitat |
Place where an organisms lives |
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What is a community |
The populations of different species in a given habitat |
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Why is index of diversity better than species richness |
Takes into consideration number of different species and poulation sizes Higher the number the more diverse |
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How can agreculture reduce biodiversity |
Woodland clearance Hedgerow removal Pesiticides herbicides Monoculture Remove niches and habitats |
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How to prevent loss of biodiversity |
Legal protection Protected areas |
