Biology 211 Test 1

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Abstract

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Summarizes the whole article

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Introduction

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Establishes the context for the research: the area in which the research takes place, the research problem, the importance of the research, and the guiding question or hypothesis

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Materials and Methods

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Describes the research procedure

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Results

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Reports the outcomes of the research procedure

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Discussion

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Interprets the results, explaining them and comparing them to the results of other experiments

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Conclusion

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Focuses the reader on what is important about the research, its contribution to the larger area of study

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E = 1 – (s SIGMA i=1) (n1/N)2

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· Incorporates both richness and evenness

· Odds that two randomly chosen individualwill belong to different species

· Higher odds = higher diversity

· Measures from 0 --> 1

0= only 1 species dominates

1=many species equally abundant

· ni = abundance of species i

· N = total abundance (the sum of all the ni)·E= Pr (indiv. 1 and indiv. 2 are differentspecies)

o E= 1- Pr(indiv. 1 and indiv. 2 are samespecies) [AKA Simpson’s index]

o E= 1 – (the sum of all the species)Pr(species i occurs) Pr(species i occurs)

o E= 1- (the sum of all the species) (ni/N)2

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log S = log c + z log A

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· This is equivalent to y=mx+b,

· Y axis = Log species

· X axis = log area

· S=c(y-intercept) +A(x)z(slope)

Z= Log S2- log S1 / log A2 – log A1

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Biodiversity

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The diversity of life considered at threelevels: genetic diversity (variety of alleles and/or genes in a population,species, or group), species diversity (variety and relative abundance ofspecies present in an area), and ecosystem diversity (variety of communitiesand abiotic components in a region)

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Community

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Allof the species that interact with each other in a certain area

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Conservation Biology

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The effort to study, preserve, and restorethreatened genetic diversity, populations, communities, and ecosystems

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Ecosystem Engineer

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any organism that creates, significantly modifies, maintains or destroys a habitat. These organisms can have a large impact on the species richness and landscape-level heterogeneity of an area. As a result, they are important for maintaining the health and stability of the environment they are living in.

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Ecosystem Service

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All of the benefits that humans derive, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions. o Any positive benefit that organisms or ecosystems provide to humans Clean water and air CO2 sequestration Pollination Human Health Medicine

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Ecosystem

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 All of the organisms that live in a geographic area, together with the nonliving (abiotic) components that affect or exchange materials with the organisms; a community and its physical environment

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Endangered / threatened species

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 A species whose numbers have decreased so much that it is in danger of extinction throughout all or part of its range

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Evenness

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• Odds that two randomly chosen individual will belong to different species

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Geographical Sampling Bias

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Sampling where humans are densely populated as opposed to more isolated areas

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Global Climate Change

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The global sum of all the local changes in temperature and precipitation patterns that accompany global warming or in some past events, global cooling

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Habitat Destruction

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Human-caused destruction of a natural habitat, replaced by an urban, suburban, or agricultural landscape

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Homogeneity Bias

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Stratifies sampling within habitat types. Resolved by randomly sampling to estimate diversity

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Invasive Species

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 An exotic (nonnative) species that, upon introduction to an area, spreads rapidly and competes successfully with native species

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Line- Transect

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Record what intersects the line

Samples 100 m2

More habitat diversity

More species

More edge effect

Setup is faster

Revisit is slower

Miss rare species

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Population

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A group of individuals of the same species living in the same geographical area at the same time

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Quadrat

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Record everything in a defined area

Samples 100m2

Fewer habitat diversity

Fewer species

Less edge effects

Setup is slower

Easier to revisit since area is smaller

Data on all species present

Visual cover estimates are prone to error

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Species Richness

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The number of species present in a given ecological community

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Species

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 An evolutionary independent population or group of populations. Generally distinct from other species in appearance, behavior, habitat, ecology, and genetic characteristics

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Species-accumulation Curve

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Show the rate at which new species are found within acommunity and can be extrapolated to provide an estimate of species richness.The simplest type of species accumulation curve is the collectors curve. Thisplots the cumulative number of species recorded as a function of samplingeffort (i.e. number of individuals collected or cumulative number of samples).

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Species-area Curve

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 The mathematical relationship between the area of a certain habitat and the number of species that it can support

 S=cA^z

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Chain of Being

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 Species are fixed types; some species are higher in the sense of being more complex or better than others

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Big Tree Bias

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Sampling only the biggest trees in a population. As a result, slow-growing small trees are underrepresented in recent times as they did not reach the minimum sample diameter.

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Common ancestry

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the most recent ancestral form or species from which two different species evolved that leads to shared traits.

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Convergence

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The independent evolution of similar traits indistantly related organisms due to adaptation to similar environments and asimilar way of life

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Evolution

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 Any change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time, especially a change in allele frequency

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Extinction

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A species that has died out

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Fitness

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The ability of an individual to produce viable offspring relative to others of the same species

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Fossil

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Any physical trace of an organism that existed in the past. Includes tracks, burrows, fossilized bones, casts, etc.

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Genetic Code

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The set of all codons and their meanings

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Heritability

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The transmission of traits from parents to offspring via genetic information

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HOM and HOX Complexes

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 A class of genes found in several animal phyla, including vertebrates, that are expressed in the same order on chromosomes along the anterior-posterior axis in early embryos and control formation of specific structures. Code for transcription factors with a DNA-binding sequence called a homeobox

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Homology

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 similarity among organisms of different species due to their inheritance from a common ancestor

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Structural Homology

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A similarity in adult morphology or form. EX) wing, arm, flipper

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Genetic Homology

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Similarities in DNA/RNA nucleotide and amino acid sequences

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Developmental Homology

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Similarities in features that are recognized in embryos. Ex) Veterbrates have gill pouches when they are embryos. Even though some lose these gills as adults

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Natural Selection

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The process by which individuals with certain heritable traits tend to produce more surviving offspring than do individuals without those traits. This often leads to a change in the genotype of the population

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Parent-offspring Correlation

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Heritabilitymay be estimated by comparing parent and offspring traits. The slope of theline approximates the heritability of the trait when offspring values areregressed against the average trait in the parents. If only one parent's valueis used then heritability is twice the slope

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Phenotype

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The detectable traits of an individual; physical characteristics

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Phylogeny

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The evolutionary history of a group of organisms

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Pseudogene

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A DNA sequence that closely resembles a functional gene but is not transcribed. Thought to have arisen by duplication of the functional gene followed by inactivation due to a mutation

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Resistance

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The natural or genetic ability of an organism to avoid or repel attack by biotic agents (pathogens, pests, parasites, etc.) or to withstand the effects of abiotic agents (chemicals, pesticides, salt, wind, heavy metals, etc).

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Statistical Significance

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when a p-value is less than the significance level (denoted α, alpha)

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Survival

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the continued existence of organisms that are best adapted to their environment, with the extinction of others

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Trait

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An observable characteristic of an individual

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Transitional Form

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A trait that is intermediate between a condition observed in ancestral species and the condition observed in derived species

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Variation

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The heritable differences within a species. Ultimately caused by mutations of genes and chromosomes, and shuffled by recombination.

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Vestigial

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A reduced or incompletely developed structure that has no function or reduced function, but is clearly similar to functioning organs or structures in closely related species

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Adaptation

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Any heritable trait that increases the fitnessof an individual with that

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Allele Frequency

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The relative frequency of an allele at a particular locus in a population p + q = 1

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Allele

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A particular Version of a gene Ex) A1 of A1A1 or A2 of A1A2

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Asymmetry of Sex

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When the females invest much more than the males do for their offspring

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Diploid

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Having two sets of chromosomes 2n; a cell or an individual organism with two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from the mother and one from the father.

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Directional Selection

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pattern of natural selection that increases the frequency of one allele, reducing a population's genetic diversity over time. favored alleles eventually become fixed, reaching a frequency of 1.0 or 100%, while disadvantageous alleles will be lost, reaching a frequency of 0.0 or 0%. The mean changes to one extreme

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Disruptive Selection

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A mode of natural selection that favors extreme phenotypes at both ends of the range of phenotypic variation. Increases genetic variation in a population and can cause speciation. Does not favor the mean and increases the standard deviation

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Stabilizing Selection

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Favors phenotypes near the middle range of phenotypic variation, maintaining the mean phenotype and reducing the standard deviation. Genetic variation is reduced

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Emigration

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The migration of individuals away from one population to other population. Decreases genetic variation

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Evolutionary Mechanisms

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Natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation

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Expected number

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The probability of an event multiplied by the amount of times the event happens

• (P(x) * n)

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Female Choice

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Females protect their investment in their offspring by being selective about who they mate with therefore choosing the best alleles for their offspring

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Founder Effect

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A change in allele frequencies that often occurs when a new population is established from a small group of individuals (founder event) due to sampling error (ie the small group is not a representative sample of the source population

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Gametes

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A haploid reproductive cell that can fuse with another haploid cell to form a zygote. Most multicellular eukaryotes have two distict forms of gametes: egg cells (ova) and sperm cells.

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Gene Flow

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The movement of alleles between populations; occurs when individuals leave one population, join another, and breed

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Genetic Drift

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Any change in allele frequencies due to random events. Causes allele frequencies to drift up and down randomly over time, and eventually can lead to the fixation or loss of alleles.

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Genotype Frequencies

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A1A1, A1A2, & A2A2; p2+2pq+q2 = 1

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Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

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A principle of population genetics stating that genotype frequencies in a large population do not change from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary processes and nonrandom mating; establishes a null hypothesis to test for evolution occurring in a population

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Immigration

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The migration of individual into a particular population from other populations. Increases genetic variation.

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Male-Male Competition

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Males have to out compete with each other to find a mate. This leaves the losing male unlikely to reproduce.

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Mutation

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Any change in the hereditary material of an organism. The only source of new alleles in population.

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Beneficial mutation

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Any mutation, allele, or trait that increases an individual's fitness

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Deletrious mutation

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Alleles that lower fitness from a population

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Deletion

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The loss of part of a chromosome

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Genetic Bottleneck

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A reduction in allelic diversity resulting from a sudden reduction in the size of a large population due to random event

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Mutagen

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Any physical or chemical reagent that increases the rate of mutation

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Null model

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A hypothesis that specifies what the results of an experiment will be if the main hypothesis being tested is wrong. Often states that there will be no difference between experimental groups.

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Point mutation

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A mutation that results in a change in a single pair in DNA

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Population bottleneck

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sudden decrease in population size. commonly caused by disease outbreaks and natural catastrophes, leading to genetic bottlenecks.

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Sexual Selection

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A type of natural selection that favors individuals with traits that increase their ability to obtain mates

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The scientific method

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o Construct a Hypothesiso Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experimento Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusiono Communicate Your Results

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• Species Richness vs Species Evenness

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o Species Richness

How many unique species

o Species Evenness

How close in abundance species in a sample are

• If all abundances equal then evenness is high

• If some species dominate then evenness is low

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• Challenges to accurately quantifying biodiversity

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o There is a great deal of variation due to different sources:

Assumptions on future levels of threats to biodiversity are unknown and depend on how rapidly humans are able to reduce these threats

More data collection is needed

Differences in how data models are constructed

Inability to project how several factors interact with each other

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• How do we predict the effects of losses of habitat on species diversity

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log S = log c + z log A

• This is equivalent to y=mx+b,

• Y axis = Log species

• X axis = log area

• S=c(y-intercept) +A(x)z(slope)

• Z= Log S2- log S1 / log A2 – log A1

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• How did Malthus’s “Principle of Population” influence Darwin and Wallace as they developed their theory of evolution.

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o Darwin read and was inspired by “Principle of Population” which communicated that many more people were born than could survive. This would lead to hunger, disease, and struggle. This struggle for survival is what inspired Darwin to apply this principle to evolution. Hence, his theory that the fittest individuals will survive and the weakest would die out.

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• Evidence for evolution

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o The fossil record indicates extinct species resemble living species found in the same area. o Transitional features document change in traits through time Exhibits traits common to both an ancestral group and its derived descendant groupo Vestigial traits are commono Populations of similar species vary and continue changingo Closely related species often live in the same geographical area.o Homologous traits are common and are recognized at the genetic, developmental, and structural levelso New species are still occurring

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Natural Selection

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o Individuals with certain characteristics produce more offspring than do individuals without those characteristics

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• Major mechanisms of evolution other than selection

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o Natural Selection o Genetic Drift- random change in alleles even if they decrease fitnesso Gene Flow- When individuals leave one population and join anothero Mutation- introduces new alleles

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• Myths about selection and evolution

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o Populations change not the individual

o Natural selection is not Lamarckian inheritance o Acclimatization is not adaptation o Evolution is not goal directed o Evolution is not progressive

o There are no higher or lower organisms

o Organisms do not act for the good of the species

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• How to test for evolution using the Hardy-Weinberg model, what does reject or fail to reject null hypothesis mean in this context statistically and biologically?

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o If the frequencies of alleles A1 and A2 in a population are given by p and q, then the frequencies of genotypes A1A1, A1A2, and A2A2 will be given by p2+2pq+q2=1o When alleles are transmitted via meiosis and random combinations of gametes, their frequency do not change over time o Statistically it means that p is greater than alpha o Biologically rejecting the null hypothesis means that evolution is occuring

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Short essay) What are the top threats to global biodiversity? Why is contemporary biodiversity loss alarming, as species have gone extinct throughout earth’s history.

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a. Habitat destruction and degradationb. Overexploitationc. Invasive speciesd. Pollutione. Climate change f. The rate of extinction is 100-1000 greater than the average/background rate recorded in the fossil record over the past 550 million yearsi. We are in the 6th mass extinction in the history or multicellular life.

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short essay) What are some of the biggestchallenges to developing an accurate map of biodiversity, and what can we do toovercome these challenges.

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a. Solutions Develop Sustainable Economies Reduce human population growth

Decrease human footprint

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(Fill-in-the-blank) You have been taking mean and standard deviation of neck length data on a population of giraffes for 6 years. Over that period of time, you have found the mean to remain unchanged at 2.0 meters, but the standard deviation has decreased from 0.6 meters to 0.3 meters.

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This change is consistent with a history of ____Stabalizing____ selection during the observation period.

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(Short essay) You identify a single locus responsible for giraffe spots: S. You find a newly established population where the frequency of the spotless s mutant is very high (0.8), as compared to the original population across the river where the s frequency = 0.1. Over the next five years, you note that giraffes occasionally cross the river and that the s frequency in the new population declines to 0.4 while the frequency in the original population rises to 0.15. What evolutionary mechanism do you suspect is causing this change and why?

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Gene flow since there must be a movement of alleles between populations and immigrants increase genetic variation. Emigration decreases genetic variation

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5. (Short answer) Your friend Lamarck claims that daily neck stretching exercises by the giraffes have allowed, over thousands of years, the long necks of the species. Explain to Lamarck why the theory of evolution by natural selection is not consistent with his hypothesis.

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• Individuals do not change when they are selected for a trait. They are just able to produce more or less offspring than the other individuals.• This leads to the selected individuals traits being more or less frequent in the population • Natural selection sorts existing variants

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6. During a trip to Kenya, you observe a population oflions. Half the lions have brown fur, but half of the lions have bright redfur! You hypothesize that this trait has been favored by natural selection,allowing red lions to blend in with red clay. What four criteria must befulfilled at minimum for your hypothesis to be true? Which criteria have youalready fulfilled?

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• The individual organisms that make up a population vary in the traits they possesso Having brown vs red lions• Some of the trait differences are heritableo The red fur trait is heritable• Organisms differ in fitness o Brown and Red lions have the exact fitness • Fitness differences relate to phenotype differenceso Red lions still need to produce more than others

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7. After a particularly severe storm, all life perishes onHilton Head Island. After this catastrophe, a new population of “palmetto bugs”(AKA roaches) is established. In this population, you note that 50% of thepopulation is bright green palmetto bugs, even though the mainland population isonly 1% bright green palmetto bugs. What evolutionary mechanism likely explainsthis difference, and what term describes this phenomena associated with theestablishment of new populations? .

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Genetic Drift- changes in allele frequency due to chance; random effects cause differences in survival and or reproduction Founder effect- sampling larger populations in the formation of small populations through immigration

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8. Draw a figure or figures that show how disruptive selection can change the distribution of a trait in a population. Be sure to label your axes.

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X-axis= value of a trait

Y-axis= number of individuals

Looks like two hills