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226 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Golgi apparatus
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It is a special organell found in the sytoplasm of the eukaryotic cell, it functions in the modification of proteins after they are synthesized. controls the export and import of protein, lipids, etc
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Lysosomes
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-Membrane sac- holds hydrolytic enzymes
-Breakdown proteins, fats, carbs, nucleic acids |
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Autophagy-
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Recycle organelles and macromolecules
-Membranes fuse -Enzymes break it down -Returns to cytosol for reuse |
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What does the lysosome process look like?
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what are neurons in brain made of?
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lipids
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what are vacuoles?
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large vesicles- membrane-bound sacs.
only in plants They hold water and enzymes and regulate the amount of water etc in a cell...They account for a large portion of cell's weight and size |
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food vacuole
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formed by phagocytosis, fuses with lysosome
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contractile vacuole
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pump excess water out of a cell to maintain the salt concentration, protists
think of a fish who pees to keep equilibrium |
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where are central vacuoles?
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in plants
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what does the plant cell wall do?
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-protects plant cell
-maintains its shape -prevents excessive uptake of water |
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primary cell wall
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relatively thin and flexible
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middle lamella
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thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells in plants
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where are plant cell walls? in the cell or out of the cell?
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find out the answer
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what does fibronectin do?
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attaches two things, which 2 things?
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what does the ECM do?
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support
adhesion movement |
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what is ECM?
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extracellular matrix
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intercellular junctions
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neighboring cells in tissues, organs - adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical contact
basically create little doors from one cell to the next, and technically something through go through the entire cell it would take a while but could go all across it through each of these. |
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cell wall in or outside of the plasma membrane?
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OUTSIDE
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animal cells (Slide 89 on chapter 6) Important slide
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Biggest difference to plants is they don't have a cell wall
tight junctions - membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid -Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) - fasten cells together into strong sheets -Gap junctions - provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells |
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What about Ch 6?
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1. Microscopes
2. Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes 3. cell size - relationship between surface area and volume 4. there will be a question on surface area and volume ratios 5. organelles |
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gap cells are the animal cell equivalent of a what in plants?
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plasma desmada
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cholesterol
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a steroid that effects membrane fluidity depending on the temperature
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what does cholesterol do at warm temps?
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restrains movement of phospholipids, making them less fluid
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what does cholesterol do at cool temps?
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maintains fluidity by preventing tight packing...lowers the temperature required for a membrane to solidify
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integral protein
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gets into he hydrophobic core
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a specific class of integral protein that spans the entire membrane is what?
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transmembrane protein
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peripheral proteins serve as what?
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send up a signal or beacon to communicate a need or something so that something will come bond with them, etc or bring something to the cell that it needs
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where to integral proteins go?
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hydrophobic regions consist of nonpolar AAs, often coiled into a-helices
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what are the 6 major functions of membrane proteins?
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1 Transport
2 Enzymatic activity 3 Signal transduction 4 Cell-cell recognition 5 Intercellular joining 6 Attachment to the cytoskeleton and ECM |
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throw a carb on something add what prefix?
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glyco
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Fundamental themes in biology as related to cells
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1. Structure = Function
2. Cells respond to their environment |
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what century was microscope discovered
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16th
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Light microscope
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Passes light through a specimen & then
through glass lenses Lenses refract (bend) light, magnifying the image |
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who invented microscope
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Anton van Leeuwenhoek
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Magnification on a microscope is calculated how?
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Multiply objective lens (ex 4x) times ocular lens (ex 10x) = 40x
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Magnification of a microscope
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ratio of an object’s image size to its real size
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with regards to resolution on a microscope, is shorter or longer wavelength better for resolution?
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Shorter wavelength – better resolution
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Conceptually, resolution is what on a microscope
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measure of the clarity of the image...Minimum distance 2 points can be separated and still be distinguished as 2 points
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What is Minimum resolution?
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~200 nanometers (nm)
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how much can you magnify with a light microscope?
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approx 1000x
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Can you use a light microscope to see most organelles of a cell?
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No, most cellular organelles are too small to be resolved with a light microscope
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how big are animal and plant cells?
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Animal/plant cells 10-100 μm
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how big are bacterial cells?
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Bacterial cells 1-10 μm
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can you see nerve cells with a light microscope?
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yes, because they're so long, in fact you can see them with your human eye
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which of the following can you see with a light microscope or with human eye?
1. frog egg 2. most plant and animal cells 3. inside cells you can see the mitochondria, nucleus, 4. some of bacterium (not the smallest electron microscope 5. smallest bacterium 6. viruses 7. lipids 8. atoms |
1-4 with light microscope
5-8 electron microscope |
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how does a scanning microscope work?
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focus a beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen
Provides 3D image |
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how does a Transmission electron microscope work?
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focus a beam of electrons through a specimen
Mainly to study the internal ultrastructure of cells |
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which microscope makes a 3D image?
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scanning microscope
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which microscope is best to study the internal structure of cells
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transmission microscope
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why do they use electrons electron microscopy?
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Electrons shorter wavelength than visible light- better resolution (clarity)
Resolution is to 2 nm |
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what is an SEM?
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scanning electron microscope
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what are the basic features of all cells?
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1. plasma membrane
2. cytosol - fluid in cell 3. genetic information 4. ribosomes - make proteins |
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what term is cytoplasm interchangeable with?
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cytosol
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what's the diff btwn Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
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Prokaryotes
1. no nucleus 2. cell wall 3. no membrane bound organelles 4. smaller and simpler Eukaryotes 1. have nucleus 2. don't have cell wall 3. animal cells only 4. membrane bound 5. larger and more complex |
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what are plant cells walls composed of?
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cellulose
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what are fungi cell walls composed of
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chitin
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what sets limits on the size of cells?
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logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism
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the larger the cell the ______ the level of metabolism
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the larger the cell the larger the level of metabolism
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the smaller the cell the ______the level of metabolism
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the smaller the cell the smaller the level of metabolism
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how large can a cell grow?
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Cell can only grow to the extent
that it can support itself |
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when you increase the size of a cell, which increases more, the volume or the surface area?
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volume
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do smaller or bigger objects have a bigger surface to volume ratio?
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smaller
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does a high surface to vol ratio help or hurt ability to facilitate exchange materials between cell and environment
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helps not hurts
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a 5 in tall perfect cube has what surface to volume ratio?
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1.2...
surface = 5x5 x 6 sides vol = 5x5x5 150/125 = 1.2 |
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what is plasma membrane
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Selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, waste to service the volume of the cell
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can things come through freely or is it throttled somehow?
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For each square μM of membrane, only so much of a particular substance can cross/second
it's like shipping and receiving, many are semi-permeable |
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what are the problems with a large cell and the plasma membrane
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Rates of chemical exchange with the environment could be inadequate to maintain a large cell
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what is the main function of microvilli in the intestines?
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to increase surface area to increase absorption
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what does the nucleus contain
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1. DNA
2. some genes 3. Mitochondria 4. chloroplast |
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what does the nuclear envelope do?
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encloses the nucleus separating it from the cytoplasm
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what does the nuclear envelope separate the nucleus from?
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cytoplasm
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what things line the nuclear envelope allowing macromolecules in and out?
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pores
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what lines the pores that are on the nuclear envelope?
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pore complex
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what does pore complex do?
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lines the pores that are on the nuclear envelope regulating entry and exit of macromolecules
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Nuclear lamina-
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lines inside of the nuclear membrane
Netlike array of protein filaments maintains the shape (like shape and frame on outside of the nucleus giving it shape) |
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Nuclear matrix-
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framework of fibers extends throughout the nuclear interior
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which of these 2 handles structure throughout the nucleus and which maintains structure of the outer edges of the nucleus
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1. nuclear lamina is the outside framework
2. nuclear matrix is the structure and framework fibers throughout |
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what are Chromosomes?
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DNA in discrete units
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what are chromatin?
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complex of proteins and DNA
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what is the centromere?
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it's at the junction in the X of the condensed chromosome
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what is a telomere?
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I think it's specifically the shorter arms on the condensed chromosome
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how many chromosomes do we have?
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46... 23 from each parent
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what happens in the nucleolus
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-ribosomal RNA is synthesized (rRNA)
-rRNA is assembled into large and small subunits |
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what is rRNA?
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ribosomal RNA
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In the following process place translated and transcribed by the proper arrow
DNA --> mRNA --> Protein |
DNA --> mRNA
transcribed...mRNA goes and unwinds and reads the helix mRNA --> Protein translated as a ribosome reads it and the tRNA grabs the appropriate protein and adds it to the new protein chain |
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Ribosomes
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Make proteins using DNA as “directions”
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what are ribosomes made of?
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Made of rRNA and protein
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what 2 places do ribosomes carry out protein synthesis?
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1. cytosol - (those are free ribosomes)
2. on the outside of the endoplasmic reticulated (ER) - bound ribosomes |
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where/what do bound ribosomes do?
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make proteins found in membranes, packaged within organelles, exported (secreted)
They do this on the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum |
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what are the Components of the endomembrane system?
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1. nuclear envelope
2. endoplasmic reticulum (ER) 3. golgi apparatus 4. lysosomes 5. vacuoles 6. plasma membrane |
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which of the following are identical in structure/function:
Nuclear envelope Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Vacuoles Plasma membrane |
NONE
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what are the System Functions of the Endomembrane?
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1. synthesize proteins
2. transport proteins to membranes or organelles 3. transport proteins out of cell 4. metabolism & movement of lipids 5. detoxification of poisons |
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what accounts for more than 1/2 the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells?
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endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
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what consists of tubules and sacs called cisternae
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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what's the difference between smooth and rough ER?
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rough has ribosomes
smooth has no ribosomes |
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what are the 2 regions of ER?
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smooth ER and rough ER
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what connects the ER to the nuclear envelope?
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nothing they're continuous and nothing connecting connects them they're already connected
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ER lumen what is it?
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cisternal space... think Dave Matthews, it's the space between the "choral like" looking ER
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what does smooth ER do?
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1. synthesizes lipids/ phospholipids and steroids/sex hormones
2. metabolizes carbs 3. stores calcium (muscles) 4. detoxes drugs (liver) |
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where can we find lots of smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
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testes
ovaries |
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how does smooth ER detox drugs in liver?
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It makes it more soluble by adding a hydroxyl group and then secretes
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What does rough ER do?
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Produces secreted proteins (such as the hormone insulin from the pancreas cells)
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how does the rough ER produce secreted proteins?
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polypeptide chain goes into ER lumen through a pore in ER membrane
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what's a transport vesicles-
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vesicles moving from one area of cell to another, they move proteins around
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how are Secretory proteins distributed?
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Secretory proteins distributed by transport vesicles; Depart ER wrapped in membranes from transitional ER
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what anchors the polypeptide to the ribosome on the ER membrane?
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Anchored by hydrophobic portions
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Why is the Golgi apparatus like Nashville at FedEx?
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b/c products of ER are modified, stored and sent out from there...
transport vesicles bring polypeptide chains to them where they are sorted and sent out |
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Do cells involved in secretion have specifically few or many golgi apparatuses?
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many
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what is cisternae?
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it's flattened membrane sacs found in ER (might be elsewhere but that's where it is for sure)
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what are the flattened membrane sacs of ER called?
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cisternae
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what is the primary product between Photosynthesis II and Photosynthesis I?
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ATP
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is reducing adding or removing a H?
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adding?
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what is the strongest oxidizing agent known?
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P680
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mitochondria take ___ and turn it into ____
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take glucose and turn it into ATP
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how much is too much ATP?
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you can never have too much ATP
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what's the difference between oxidative phosphorylation and phosphorylation
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With Oxidative phosphorylation - high energy electrons dropped down ETC
whereas with simple phosphorylation - water is the source of the electrons in phosphorylation |
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what powers ATP synthase
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diffusion of H+ from thylakoid space
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what gets spit into Calvin cycle
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NADPH
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What are fundamental themes in biology?
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1. Structure = Function
2. Cells respond to their environment |
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main diff's btwn plant cells and animal
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Plants
1. cell wall 2. central vacuoles 3. plasmodesmata 4. chloroplasts Animal 1. lysosomes 2. centrioles none of the stuff above |
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what are central vacuoles?
what type of cells are they in? |
they hold enzymes and water
only in plants |
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Does a large cell have a high or lower level of metabolism compared to smaller cell?
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larger
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Does a small cell have a high or lower level of metabolism compared to larger cell?
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smaller
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Thylakoids
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membranous sacs
Granum- stack of thylakoids found in chloroplasts |
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Stroma
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found in chloroplasts... internal fluid
Contain ribosomes & DNA |
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What 3 compartments are chloroplast divided into?
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Intermembrane space
Stroma Thylakoid space |
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are chloroplasts mobile?
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yes, they move around in the cell
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what is a granum?
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stack of thylakoids
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what is stroma likened to in a chloroplast?
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it's like the cytoplasm of a chloroplast
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what do peroxisomes produce?
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they produce H2O2 and then convert it to water
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What do peroxisomes do with oxygen?
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Use oxygen to break down fatty acids- fuel in mitochondria
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what 3 types of molecular structures are cytoskeleton composed of
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microtubules
microfilaments intermediate filaments |
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what is the cytoskeleton?
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Network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
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What are the Roles of the Cytoskeleton?
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1. Support cell and maintain its shape
Animal cells lack cell walls 2. Provides anchorage for organelles 3. Dynamic- quickly dismantled and reassembled Can you imagine if our skeletons did that?! 4. Motility- cell movement & parts within the cell 5. Motor proteins bind tubules, filaments Slide them past one another Similar to how your muscles contract 6. Vesicles, organelles travel along microtubules Neurotransmitter molecules migrate to tips of axons ER transport vesicles travel to Golgi 7. Manipulate plasma membrane to form vesicles |
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Why is it important that animal cells have cytoskeleton?
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we'd be jello because we don't have cell walls
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Rank the Components of the Cytoskeleton in thickness:
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Microtubules- thickest
Intermediate filaments- middle Microfilaments- (actin filaments) thinnest |
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Microtubules are Hollow rods called what?
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tubulin dimer
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how do microtubules grow in length?
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Grow in length by adding a dimer
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within centrosome, how many triplets of microtubules are arranged in a ring
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9 triplits
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In animal cells- microtubules grow out from what?
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centrosome
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How do Cilia and flagella differ?
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in their beating patterns
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What controls the beating of cilia & flagella
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the microtubules' contractions
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What anchors the cilium or flagellum
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basal body
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What are cilia and flagella composed of
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A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane
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What is the 9 +2 pattern in cilia and flagella
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9 doublets in a ring
2 single in the center like a churro of 9 doublets around the outside tube and 2 singles in middle |
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What is Dynein?
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motor protein drives the bending movements
Located on outer doublet in pairs Reach toward neighboring doublet |
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which is thicker actin or myosin?
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myosin
1000's of actin filaments are parallel with myosin |
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in the video, what is the arm that is cocked and powered by ATP?
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myosin
myosin pulls actin by fitting in a slot and pulling it like a rope in rowing motions |
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what are Intermediate Filaments made of?
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Made out of keratin proteins
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do intermediate filaments disassemble and reassemble?
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No, they're Permanent fixture- don’t unassemble
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what are the major 3 Extracelluar Components?
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1. Cell walls of plants
2. Extracellular matrix (ECM) 3. Intercellular junctions |
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What are the multiple layers of the cell wall?
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1. Primary cell wall- relatively thin and flexible
2. Middle lamella- thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells Rich in pectins (polysaccharides) 3. Secondary cell wall- (in some cells): added between the plasma membrane & the primary cell wall Strengthens the wall, offers protection 4. Plasmodesmata- channels between adjacent plant cells |
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What is the ECM made up of?
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Made up of glycoproteins
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How do Cells attach to ECM?
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by a glycoprotein called fibronectin
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What are the ECM functions?
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SAM
Support Adhesion Movement |
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Intercellular Junctions are what in animals and what in plants?
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gap junctions in animals
plasmodesmata in plants |
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What are desmosomes?
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(anchoring junctions)- fasten cells together into strong sheets
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Why is it important that animal cells have Tight junctions?
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membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid
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What are Gap junctions?
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provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
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What is a light rxn?
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Calvin cycle catches the light
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Is the Calvin cycle is it NADH or NADPH?
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NADPH
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what is the product of the calvin cycle?
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raw product is a sugar called G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
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For the net synthesis of ONE G3P has to turn how many times?
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has to turn 3 times
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where does the Calvin cycle occur?
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stroma
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how many CO2's go in to the Calvin cycle to create one G3P?
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3 CO2
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what is the initial enzyme of Calvin Cycle
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Rubisco
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What are the 3 phases of the Calvin cycle?
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1. Carbon fixation
2. Reduction 3. |
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What is RuBP?
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Ribulose bisphosphate
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what goes into the first phase of Calvin cycle (into Carbon fixation)?
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RuBP and CO2
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What happens essentially in the Reduction phase?
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Stealing phosphates from the 1,3-Bishphosphoglycerate and then ditching H+'s
Adding a phosphate group, reducing and using a phosphate group... taking 6 NADPH's and in this case we're pulling the H+'s off |
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What is Regeneration of the CO2 Acceptor
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It's the setting up the Calvin cycle with the necessary RuBP
Carbon skeletons of 5 G3P molec's rearranged into 3 RuBP's |
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what is the net synthesase of 3 turns of calvin cycle?
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1 G3P molecule
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If 3 carbons go into the Calvin and only 1 G3P comes out, What happens to the other 2?
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They get used to regenerate the RuBP
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what would be on test about CAM C3/C4
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know chemiosmosis
Know CAM plants C3 vs C4 plant photosynthesis |
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Is a CAM plant a C4?
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yes it's a specific type
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where does Calvin cycle occur in C4?
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in bundled sheath cells...this is to keep it from having photo respiration
keeping CO2 high around rubisco Mesophil cells... calvin in bundled sheath. |
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how does CAM do Calvin cycle?
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at night, the difference is not the cells but in the time of day. CAM saves malate till morning and uses it up during the day.
temporal separation, Calvin cycle at night |
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why do C4 and CAM perform differently?
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to keep from losing water...
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What kind of climates would you see more C4?
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hot dry climates
C3 would be in cooler climates in which it's more efficient not to have to fix this carbon molecules. |
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Why is it called C4?
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because it juggles 4 C's
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What does oxidative phosphorylation include?
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includes electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
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what are cellular membranes
A proteins B lipids C carbs D all of the above |
D all of the above
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what are amphiaphathic molecules?
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contain hydrphobic and hydrphilic
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Can Phospholipids move within the bilayer (fluid as salad oil)
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yes, fluid as salad oil
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As temperatures cool, membranes switch from what to what?
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fluid state to a solid state
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Membranes rich in unsaturated fatty acids are more or less fluid at lower temperatures
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more fluid at lower temperature than saturated fatty acids
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Do kinks make the membrane more or less fluid?
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MORE Fluid --Cannot pack together due to double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon chain
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What's the difference between Integral protein and Peripheral protein
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Integral protein- penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer
Transmembrane protein- spans the entire membrane Peripheral protein- not embedded in the membrane, bound to it |
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What are the 2 ways that a transport membrane protein can get something across
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Hydrophilic channel or ATP to actively pump substance across
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Signal Transduction membrane proteins do what?
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They communicate with the environment
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cell to cell membrane proteins do what?
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communicate with other cells
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Do kinks make the membrane more or less fluid?
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MORE Fluid --Cannot pack together due to double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon chain
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What's the difference between Integral protein and Peripheral protein
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Integral protein- penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer
Transmembrane protein- spans the entire membrane Peripheral protein- not embedded in the membrane, bound to it |
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What are the 2 ways that a transport membrane protein can get something across
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Hydrophilic channel or ATP to actively pump substance across
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Signal Transduction membrane proteins do what?
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They communicate with the environment
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cell to cell membrane proteins do what?
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communicate with other cells
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what do we need to remember about diffusion vs osmosis
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Diffusion refers to the movement of
SOLUTE (molecules) down its OWN concentration gradient Do NOT confuse this with osmosis- the diffusion of WATER (solution) |
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do animal cells like hypo, hyper or isotonic environments?
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iso
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do plant cells like hypo, hyper or isotonic environments?
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hypo
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what is plasmolyzed
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when a cell is in a hypertonic solution and shrivels as a result
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what are all the proteins that can facilitate active transport?
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ONLY carrier proteins
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Phagocytosis (eating)- cell engulfs particles in a vacuole
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engulfs food
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Pinocytosis (drinking)- cell creates vesicle around fluid
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engulfs fluid
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Catabolic pathways do what/
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break down glucose; release energy
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Anabolic pathways do what?
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Build complex molecules from simpler ones; consume energy doing it
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First Law of Thermodynamics
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Energy can be transferred & transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed
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what's an example of closed system
|
mitochrondria
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what is -delta G
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exergonic
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Breaking down glucose has what ∆G
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-686KJ
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By nature are cells in equilibrium?
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Cells are not in equilibrium because they're in an open system otherwise, they'd be dead. If you're in closed system you'd die.
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Three main kinds of work use energy:
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Mechanical- beating of cilia, muscle contraction
Transport- pump substances across membrane against the concentration gradient Chemical- endergonic rxn’s, synthesis of polymers from monomers |
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What is the ETC
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Electron Transport Chain
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Does ETC product ATP directly?
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Does not produce any ATP directly
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What goes into ETC?
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2 H+'s and 2e-'s from food via NADH
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Is photosynthesis exer or energonic? Why
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Photosynthesis is endergonic.
because it's storing energy |
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Is respiration- exer or energonic? Why
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(exergonic)
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what goes into photosynthesis?
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CO2 and H2O
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What comes out of photosynthesis?
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organic + O2
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where does photosynthesis send the organic molecules?
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to the mitochondria to create ATP
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How do cells obtain chemical energy stored in organic molecules
How do cells use that energy to generate ATP |
Glycolysis
Citric Acid Cycle Oxidative Phosphorylation Fermentation |
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Categorize G-energy and S-energy:
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G- free energy (energy available to do work)
(S- entropy) dissipated as heat |
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What are the 2 types of Catabolic Rxn’s that Generate ATP?
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Fermentation- anaerobic respiration (no oxygen!)
Partial degradation of sugars, no oxygen is consumed Cellular Rs- consumes oxygen (aerobic) & organic fuel Much more efficient than fermentation! |
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Oxidation
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lose an electron
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Reduction
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gain an electron (reducing the positive charge of the atom b/c electrons are negative)
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where is the ETC?
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in mitochondria
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Cellular respiration goes from what to what to what?
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Food NADH electron transport chain oxygen
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