Biology 1408 Exam 1 Review

Front 1

Properties of Living Things:

Back 1

Order
Reproduction
Growth and development
Energy utilization
Response to stimuli
Homeostasis
Evolutionary adaptation.

Front 2

Properties of Living Things: Order

Back 2

All other characteristics of life emerge from an organism’s highly ordered structure.

Front 3

Properties of Living Things: Reproduction

Back 3

Organisms reproduce their own kind
Life comes only from life
Sexual and asexual
All organisms have DNA.

Front 4

Properties of Living Things: Growth & Development

Back 4

DNA directs the pattern of growth and development:
Increase in size and number of cells
Change in form.

Front 5

Properties of Living Things: Energy Utilization

Back 5

Energy is transformed into many kinds of work
Metabolism (anabolism/catabolism)
Sum of all biological chemical reactions .

Front 6

Properties of Living Things: Response to Stimuli

Back 6

Stimulations trigger a response
Mechanoreception,
Chemoreception,
Photoreception

Front 7

Properties of Living Things: Homeostasis

Back 7

Maintaining an organism’s internal environment within tolerable limits
Metabolic processes use energy to maintain balanced intracellular condition
homeostasis (coined by Walter Cannon, 1930).

Front 8

Properties of Living Things: Evolutionary Adaption

Back 8

-Life evolves as a result of the interaction between organisms and their environments
-Living things adjust & adapt to their surroundings
-Adaptations allow organisms to survive in a particular environment
-Evolution is witnessed when the species changes.
(i.e., animals shedding coat, polar bear white in winter, lizard camouflage)

Front 9

Two approaches to the study of life:

Back 9

Reductionistic (Dismantling the parts) & Holistic (Like the study of ecology--examining the whole picture) Examine the whole
Emergent properties results from interactions between components.

Front 10

Hierarchy of Organization (1-12)

Back 10

1. atom
C
2. molecule
C6H12O6
3. organelle
mitochondrion
4. cell
muscle cell
5. tissue
muscle
6. organ
heart
7. system
circulatory system
8. organism
Mouse
9. population - species
mice
10. community
college w/mice + men
11. ecosystem
community + abiotic factors (soil, water, air)
12. biosphere – earth.

Front 11

Smallest unit of matter:

Back 11

Atom (non-living)

Front 12

Smallest unit of life:

Back 12

Cell (it is the smallest singular thing that can live on its own, independently)

Front 13

Who initiated the use for classifying animals (taxonomy or nomenclature)

Back 13

Carolus Linnaeus (Carol Linn does my taxes)

Front 14

Define: Taxonomy

Back 14

The study of systems of classification is called taxonomy; carried out by taxonomists

Front 15

What is a binomial nomenclature?

Back 15

a combination of two names, genus and species that uniquely identifies each organism.

Front 16

List the levels of Taxonomy from Specific to less specific:

Back 16

Specific epithet
Genus
Family
Order
Class Phylum or Division (Plantae, Fungi)
Kingdom
Domain

Front 17

What are the three domains of Taxonomy (Life)?

Back 17

Bacteria- Prokaryotic cells
Eukarya- Prokaryotic cells
Archaea -Eukaryotic cells.

Front 18

Name the domains of Taxonomy and list examples and characteristics of each:

Back 18

Bacteria--prokaryotes (no nucleus-they have nucleoid), unicellular, and microscopic. (i.e., E-coli) bacteria that live in soil, on other organisms, on surfaces, in the sea, and in many other places.
Eukarya--unicellular & cellular, Eukaryote (has a nucleus), they have organelles (humans, animals, plants)
Archaea- Prokaryotes, unicellular, live in harsh environments (i.e., Methanococcus) Ancient-type bacteria that thrive in heat, salt, acid conditions, and process methane.

Front 19

What are the two nutritional modes of cells?

Back 19

Autotroph-Self-feeder
Heterotroph- feeds on others
(i.e., A flower is an Autotroph. "Have you ever seen a flower eat a lion?")

Front 20

The Eukaryotes, which have a nucleus, form a third domain, and comprise 4 kingdoms:

Back 20

Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia

Front 21

Characteristics of Protista:

Back 21

Eukaryotic unicellular (mostly):
Protozoa – amoeba
Protists - algae.

Front 22

Characteristics of Fungi:

Back 22

Eukaryotic multicellular (mostly):
Yeasts, mildew, molds, and mushrooms
Nonphotosynthetic: heterotrophs that absorb nutrients.

Front 23

Characteristics of Plantae:

Back 23

Eukaryotic multicellular
Complex organization,
Nonvascular (mosses) and vascular (ferns, conifers, flowering) plants
Many photosynthetic (autotrophs), make carbohydrate from H2O & CO2.

Front 24

Characteristics of Animalia:

Back 24

Eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophs, injests food
Complex tissues and organs, capacity for movement.

Front 25

Charles Robert Darwin
(1809-1882)

Back 25

H.M.S. Beagle (1831-1836)-boat
-The Origin of Species, 1859
-On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
descent with modification,
natural selection
-Theory of Evolution

Front 26

Levels of Scientific Inquiry:

Back 26

Hypothesis, Theory, Law or Principle, Tests:variables

Front 27

Hypothesis:

Back 27

-A tentative explanation of a specific phenomenon 
-hypothesis of endosymbionts

Front 28

Theory:

Back 28

-An explanatory idea that is broad in scope and supported by a large body of evidence
-theory of evolution, cell theory

Front 29

Law or Principle:

Back 29

-Widely accepted idea about a phenomenon
-Mendel’s Laws, Laws of Thermodynamics.

Front 30

Tests: Variables:

Back 30

-dependent, measure
-independent, manipulate
-, constant.

Front 31

Scientific Method
The hypothetico-deductive method

Back 31

Observation
Question
Hypothesis
Prediction
Test
Results
Conclusion

Front 32

Define: Biology:

Back 32

Study of life

Front 33

Define: Cytology

Back 33

Study of cell

Front 34

Define: Homeostasis

Back 34

The process of maintaining internal equilibrium of an organism

Front 35

Define: Genetics

Back 35

Study of inheritance, dna, etc

Front 36

Define: Ecology

Back 36

The study of organisms and the way they interact with the environment (both abiotic and biotic)

Front 37

Define: Emergent Properties

Back 37

Life emerges at the level of the cell for a specific reason --properties that emerge, properties that were not part of the component from the previous level

Front 38

What are the main points of Darwin's theory of evolution by national selection?

Back 38

1) Observation: Individual variation
2) Observation:Overproduction of offspring
3) Inference:Unequal reproductive success (the strong will survive)
4) Inference: Favorable traits will accumulate (b/c the strongest survive, they are going to reproduce with each other and carry on those favorable traits)

Front 39

Give an example of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

Back 39

1) Population with varied inherited traits: Beetles (all ranging in different colors)
2) Elimination of individuals with certain traits: Birds eating the lighter colored beetles (natural process--birds need to eat)
3) Reproduction of survivors (Birds need to eat, they can easily see the lighter beetles, so they choose those when they eat. The grey/darker colored beetles survive being eaten by the bird, reproduce amongst themselves, and changed the populations characteristics)
(The natural selective mechanism in this case was the bird being able to see the white beetles)

Front 40

Define: Morphological species concept

Back 40

Defining the species based on physical features (size, shape, etc)

Front 41

Define: Ecological species concept

Back 41

Defining the species based on where it lives and the role it plays in its environment (niche).

Front 42

Define: Phylogenetic species concept

Back 42

Defining the species based on a common ancestor (genes).

Front 43

Evolution: Form & Function history

Back 43

According to Lamarck's long-discredited theory of evolution, anatomy will be structured according to functions associated with use; for instance, giraffes are taller to reach the leaves of trees. By contrast, in Darwinian evolution, form (variation) precedes function (as determined by selection). That is to say in Lamarckian evolution the form is altered by the required function, whereas in Darwinian evolution small variations in form allow some parts of the population to function 'better', and are therefore more successful reproductively.

Front 44

Properties of Atoms:

Back 44

Subatomic particles:
atomic nucleus:
protons (p) +
neutrons (n) neutral
cloud around the nucleus:
electrons (e) -

Front 45

Dalton = a.m.u. (atomic mass unit)

Back 45

1 dalton = 1.67 X 10-24 g
p = 1 dalton
n = 1 dalton
e = 1/2000 dalton

Front 46

Atomic # =

Back 46

# of protons 8O

Front 47

mass # =

Back 47

# protons + # n 16O

Front 48

Atomic weight =

Back 48

a measure of its mass, can be approximated by the mass number.
For example, 4He has a mass number of 4 and an estimated atomic weight of 4 daltons.
More precisely, its atomic weight is 4.003 daltons.

Front 49

What is an Isotope?

Back 49

The atomic form of an element with different number of neutrons; Used for geological dating, diagnosis research, treatment

Front 50

Three Isotopes of C:

Back 50

12C = 6p + 6 n (99%)
13C = 6p + 7n (approx. 1%)
14C = 6p + 8n (rarest)

Front 51

Radioactive Isotope:

Back 51

Some isotopes are unstable and decay spontaneously, these radioactive isotopes emit particles and energy--which is not good.
14C is a one of these unstable or radioactive isotopes.
In its decay, an neutron is converted to a proton and electron.
This converts 14C to 14N, changing the identity of that atom.
Half life 14C = 5600 yrs.
Half life 40K = 1.3 b.yrs.

Front 52

What are the uses for Radioactive isotopes?

Back 52

Used for geological dating
Treatment
-to trace atoms in metabolism
Diagnosis research

Front 53

What is an Ion?

Back 53

Atoms that have gained or lost electrons.

Front 54

What is a cation?

Back 54

When an atom loses an electron
Na = 11p + 11e + 11n
Na+ = 11p + 10e + 11n

Front 55

What is an anion?

Back 55

When an atom gains an electron
Cl = 17p + 17e + 17n
Cl - = 17p + 18e + 17n

Front 56

Redox Reaction:
(topic under cellular respiration and photosynthesis)

Back 56

Chemical reaction involving the transfer of 1 or more electrons from one reactant to another
Redox = oxidation-reduction reaction

Front 57

Redox= oxidation-reducing reaction:
Red=? Ox=?

Back 57

Red = reduction, gain of electrons by a substance
ox = oxidation, loss of electrons by a substance

Front 58

Electron Orbitals

Back 58

space around nucleus where electrons are most likely to be found (90% of the time)
can be shaped differently

Front 59

Electron Shells

Back 59

Shells -energy levels within an orbital
the first shell, closest to the nucleus, has the lowest potential energy
electrons in outer shells have more potential energy
electrons can only change their position if they absorb or release a quantity of energy that matches the difference in potential energy between the two levels

Front 60

Chemical Bonds:

Back 60

Atoms with incomplete valence shells interact by either sharing or transferring valence electrons.
-Atoms remaining close together, held by an attractions called chemical bonds.
four types:
covalent bond
ionic bond
hydrogen bond
Van der Waals interactions

Front 61

Covalent Bonds:

Back 61

The sharing of electrons. (3) types
-single bonds
-double bonds
-triple bonds

Non-polar covalent bonds--electrons shared equally
Polar covalent bonds-- electrons shared unequally

Front 62

Ionic Bonds:

Back 62

Unequal sharing. Attraction between ions of opposite charge. Ions form if two atoms are so unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that one atom strips an electron completely from the other.

Front 63

Hydrogen Bonds:

Back 63

A slightly positive H atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to a slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule

Front 64

Matter:

Back 64

is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Front 65

Element:

Back 65

a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances

Front 66

Electronegativity:

Back 66

recorded by Linus Pauling
Atom’s ability to attract and pull electrons of a covalent bond. Up and to the right of the periodic table is more electronegative.

Front 67

Nonpolar covalent bond

Back 67

Carbon and hydrogen have similar electronegativities

Front 68

Polar covalent bond.

Back 68

oxygen has a much higher electronegativity than does hydrogen. Compounds with a polar covalent bond have regions that have a partial negative charge near the strongly electronegative atom and a partial positive charge near the weakly electronegative atom.

Front 69

Dipole moment:

Back 69

It's a partial charge. If you're a partial charge you wouldn't be considered positive or negative--its a feeling

Front 70

List the 4 most abundant elements (of the 25) in living things.

Back 70

Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen

Front 71

Example of Hydrogen Bonds:

Back 71

For example, ammonia molecules and water molecules link together with weak hydrogen bonds.

Front 72

αντιχριστος, ὁ

Back 72

Anti-Christ

Front 73

Inorganic Chemistry Consists of what 3 compounds?

Back 73

Water
Acids
Bases

Front 74

Water: chemical formula & properties

Back 74

Chemical formula… H2O
Properties
cohesive, form H bonds
adhesive, clings to surfaces
Polar

Front 75

Water: Cohesion

Back 75

among water molecules plays a key role in the transport of water against gravity in plants. Combating gravity--the key role in water molecules

Front 76

Water: Adhesion

Back 76

clinging of one substance to another, contributes too, as water adheres to the wall of the vessels.

Front 77

Meniscus

Back 77

Measuring device

Front 78

Water: Surface Tension

Back 78

-a measure of the force necessary to stretch or break the surface of a liquid, is related to cohesion.
Water has a greater surface tension than most other liquids
Water behaves as if covered by an invisible film.
Some animals can stand, walk, or run on water without breaking the surface.

Front 79

Polarity of Water:

Back 79

The molecule has opposite charges on opposite sides
polar molecules form H bonds with other polar molecules

Front 80

Water is the solvent of life: Solution =?

Back 80

solution = solvent + solute(s)
ex: cup of hazelnut coffee
(hot water, sugar, coffee grounds)
Aqueous solution: (liquid based solution)
solvent is water

Front 81

Water forms hydrogen bonds with ions

Back 81

the Na+ cations form hydrogen bonds with partial negative oxygen regions of water molecules.
the Cl- anions form hydrogen bonds with the partial positive hydrogen regions of water molecules.

Front 82

Hydration shell:

Back 82

each dissolved ion is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules

Front 83

Water forms hydrogen bonds with polar molecules

Back 83

Polar molecules are also soluble in water Even large molecules, like proteins, can dissolve in water if they have ionic and polar regions.

Front 84

Water: Hydrophillic

Back 84

any substance that has an affinity for water
Some are water-soluble
water molecules are attracted to molecules with an electrical charge (ionic or polar bonds)
H-bond formation may form

Front 85

Water: Hydrophobic

Back 85

Substances that have no affinity for water
Non-ionic & nonpolar compounds are repelled by water
no affinity to water
water-insoluble
Hydrophobic molecules are major ingredients of cell membranes
Some vegetables and fruits with nonpolar pesticides

Front 86

Mole Concept:

Back 86

Counting individual or even collections of molecules is not practical.
Instead, we can use the concept of a mole to convert weight of a substance to the number of molecules in that substance and vice versa.

Front 87

Ionization of Water:

Back 87

2 H2O H3O+ + OH

by convention:
H2O H + + OH

pH of pure water is 7 (10-7 M)

Front 88

pH

Back 88

Scale 0-14
logarithmic scale
-pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the H+ concentration
pH = - log10 [H+]
Example: pure water at RT: pH = -log 10-7M
= - (-7) = 7
compare pH 2 to pH 4

Front 89

Formula for pH meter

Back 89

pH = - log10 [H+]

Front 90

What is the basis of the pH scale?

Back 90

pH scale is based upon the -log of the hydrogen concentration in a substance. Measures the concentration

Front 91

Acids:

Back 91

substances that increase [H+] in solution
pH below 7
ex: HCl H+ + Cl -
-acid precipitation, with pH < 5.6
-acid indigestion use antacids (tested in lab)

Front 92

Bases:

Back 92

substances that reduce [H+] in solution
pH above 7

ex. NH3 + H+ NH4 +

NaOH Na+ + OH-

Front 93

Buffer:

Back 93

prevent sudden pH changes in biological fluids
accept hydrogen ions from the solution when they are in excess and donate hydrogen ions when they have been depleted

Front 94

Trace Element:

Back 94

Elements in very small quantities that our body needs in order to perform certain necessary biochemical functions. Usually metals because metals for ions--when metals have a charge they spark a certain reaction in our body. (i.e., Fe, Mg, Ca, Fl, K, I, Zn)

Front 95

What is Organic Chemistry?

Back 95

The study of carbon-containing compounds.

Front 96

Why are Carbon atoms considered the building blocks of molecules?

Back 96

The are the most versatile. With a total of 6 electrons, a carbon atom has 2 in the first shell and 4 in the second shell.
-Carbon usually completes its valence shell by sharing electrons with other atoms in four covalent bonds.
-This tetravalence by carbon makes large, complex molecules possible.

Front 97

What are Carbon chains?

Back 97

form the skeletons of most organic molecules
-the skeletons may vary in length and may be straight, branched, or arranged in closed rings
-the carbon skeletons may also include double bonds

Front 98

What is a functional group?

Back 98

A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions

Front 99

What are the different functional groups?

Back 99

Hydroxyl -OH
Carbonyl CO
Carboxyl -COOH
Amino -NH2
Sulfhydryl -SH
Phosphate - PO4 2- (-OPO32-)
Methyl -CH3

Front 100

What is a hydroxyl group?

Back 100

(-OH),
-a hydrogen atom forms a polar covalent bond with an oxygen which forms a polar covalent bond to the carbon skeleton.
-Organic compounds with hydroxyl groups are alcohols and their names typically end in -ol.

Front 101

What is a carbonyl group?

Back 101

(- -CO)--bar up and right)
-consists of an oxygen atom joined to the carbon skeleton by a double bond.
aldehyde -If the carbonyl group is on the end of the skeleton,
ketone - if not at the end

Front 102

What is a carboxyl group?

Back 102

(-COOH) carbon atom with a double bond with an oxygen atom and a single bond to a hydroxyl group.
carboxylic acids - compounds with carboxyl groups
Acidic properties - because the combined electronegativities of the two adjacent oxygen atoms increase the dissociation of hydrogen as an ion (H+).

Front 103

What is an amino group?

Back 103

(-NH2) nitrogen atom attached to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton.
Amines - Organic compounds with amino groups.
Basic properties - because ammonia can pick up a hydrogen ion (H+) from the solution.

Front 104

What is a sulfhydryl group?

Back 104

(-SH)
sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and to the backbone
thiols - organic molecules with sulfhydryl
Sulfhydryl groups help stabilize the structure of proteins.

Front 105

What is a phosphate group?

Back 105

(-OPO32-)
-Phosphorus bound to four oxygen atoms (three with single bonds and one with a double bond).
-Phosphate groups are anions with two negative charges as two protons have dissociated from the oxygen atoms.
-One function of phosphate groups is to transfer energy between organic molecules.

Front 106

What is a methyl group?

Back 106

(-CH3)
Carbon bonded to 3 hydrogen atoms. The methyl group may be attached to a C or a different atom
Addition of methyl to molecule changes its shape and function

Front 107

What are the three types of Isomers?

Back 107

Structural isomers
Geometric isomers
Enantiomers

Front 108

What are the properties of structural isomers?

Back 108

-Variation in covalent partners
-butane has a straight skeleton and isobutane has a branched skeleton
-same molecular formula C4H10

Front 109

What are the properties of geometric isomers?

Back 109

-Variation in arrangement about a double bond
-rhodopsin (in the retina) from one geometric isomer to another.

Front 110

What are the properties of enantiomers?

Back 110

-Variation in spatial arrangement, mirror images
-enantiomers are possible if there are four different atoms or groups of atoms bonded to a carbon
-they are like left-handed and right-handed versions
-usually one is biologically active, the other inactive

Front 111

What are the (4) classes of macromolecules?

Back 111

Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acid

Front 112

What is a polymer?

Back 112

Chain of linked monomers.
polymer monomer
1. Carbohydrates ------- sugar
2. Proteins --------------- amino acids
3. Nucleic acids --------- nucleotides

Front 113

What is a composite molecule?

Back 113

Lipids ---------glycerol + fatty acid(s)

Front 114

Macromolecule bond- bonds/link types

Back 114

macromolecule bond/link type
1. Carbohydrates ----- glycosidic linkage
2. Lipids ---------------- ester linkage
3. Proteins------------- peptide bond
4. Nucleic acids------phosphodiester bond

Front 115

Dehydration synthesis

Back 115

(Condensation) - remove a water molecule, polymerize