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191 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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primate
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Member of the mammalian order Primates, including prosimians, monkeys, apes, and humans, defined by a suite of anatomical and behavioral traits.
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evolution
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A change in the frequency of a gene or a trait in a population over multiple generations.
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biological anthropology
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The study of humans as biological organisms, considered in an evolutionary framework.
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hominid
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A member of the primate family Hominidae, distinguished by bipedal posture and, in more recently evolved species, large brain.
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adaptation
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A trait that increases the reproductive success of an organism, produced by natural selection in the context of a particular environment.
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paleoanthropology
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The study of the fossil record of ancestral humans and their primate kin.
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osteology
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The study of the skeleton
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paleopathology
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The study of diseases in ancestral human populations.
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forensic anthropology
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The study of human remains applied to a legal context.
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primatology
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The study of nonhuman primates and their anatomy, genetics, behavior, and ecology.
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human biology
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Subfield of biological anthropology dealing with human growth and development, adaptation to environmental extremes, and human genetics.
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physical anthropology
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The study of humans as biological organisms, considered in an evolutionary framework.
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anthropology
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The study of humankind in a cross-cultural context. Anthropology includes the subfields cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, archaeology, and biological anthropology.
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culture
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The sum total of learned traditions, values, and beliefs that groups of people, and a few species of highly intelligent animals, possess.
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biocultural anthropology
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The study of the interaction between biology and culture, which plays a role in most human traits.
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cultural anthropology
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The study of human societies, especially in a cross-cultural context; the subdivision of anthropology that includes ethnology, archaeology, and linguistics.
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ethnology
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The study of human societies, their traditions, rituals, beliefs, and the differences between societies in these traits.
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ethography
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practice of cultural anthropology. Ethonographers study the minute-to-minute working of human societies, especially non-Western societies.
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archaeology
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The study of the material culture of past peoples.
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artifacts
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The objects, from tools to art, left by earlier generations of people.
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material culture
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The objects or artifacts of past human societies.
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linguistic anthropology
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The study of language, its origins, and use; also called anthropological linguistics.
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deduction
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A conclusion that follows logically from a set of observations.
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observation
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The gathering of scientific information by watching a phenomenon.
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hypothesis
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A preliminary explanation of a phenomenon. Hypothesis formation is the first step of the scientific method.
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experimentation
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The testing of a hypothesis.
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scientific method
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Standard scientific research procedure in which a hypothesis is stated, data are collected to test it, and the hypothesis is either supported or refuted.
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data
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The scientific evidence produced by an experiment or by observation, from which scientific conclusions are made.
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falsifiable
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Able to be shown to be false.
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paradigm
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A conceptual framework useful for understanding a body of science.
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immutability
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Stasis, lack of change, fixity.
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polygenism
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Ancient belief that people are derived from multiple creations
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monogenism
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Ancient belief that all people are derived from a single creation.
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taxonomy
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The science of biological classification.
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binomial nomenclature
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Linnaean naming system for all organisms, consisting of a genus and species label.
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taxon
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A group of organisms assigned to a particular category.
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catastrophism
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Theory that there have been multiple creations interspersed by great natural disasters such as Noah’s flood.
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theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics
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Discredited theory of evolutionary change proposing that changes that can occur during the lifetime of an individual can be passed on to the next generation (Lamarckian).
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Lysenkoism
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Soviet-era research program that tried to apply Lamarckian thinking to agricultural production.
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uniformitarianism
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Theory that the same gradual geological process we observe today was operating in the past.
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adaptive radiation
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The diversification of one founding species into multiple species and niches.
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natural selection
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Differential reproductive success over multiple generations.
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fitness
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Reproductive success.
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population
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An interbreeding group of organisms.
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mutation
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An alteration in the DNA, which may or may not alter the function of a cell. If it occurs in a gamete, it may be passed from one generation to the next.
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Creation science
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A creationist attempt to refute the evidence of evolution.
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Intelligent design
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A creationist school of thought that proposes that natural selection cannot account for the diversity and complexity of form and function seen in nature.
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prokaryotes
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Single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, in which the genetic material is not separated from the rest of the cell by a nucleus.
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eukaryotes
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A cell that possesses a well-organized nucleus.
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nucleus
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In eukaryotic cells, the part of the cell in which the genetic material is separated from the rest of the cell (cytoplasm) by a plasma membrane.
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cytoplasm
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In a eukaryotic cell, the region within the cell membrane that surrounds the nucleus; it contains organelles, which carry out the essential functions of the cell, such as energy production, metabolism, and protein synthesis.
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somatic cells
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The cells of the body that are not sex cells.
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gametes
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The sex cells: sperm in males and eggs (or ova) in females.
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stem cells
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Undifferentiated cells found in the developing embryo that can be induced to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types of tissues. Also found in adults, although adult stem cells are not as totipotent as embryonic stem cells.
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deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
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A double-stranded molecule that is the carrier of genetic information. Each strand is composed of a linear sequence of nucleotides; the two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds that form between complementary bases.
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proteins
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Complex molecules formed from chains of amino acids (polypeptide) or form a complex of polypeptides. They function as structural molecules, transport molecules, antibodies, enzymes, and hormones.
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protein synthesis
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The assembly of proteins from amino acids, which occurs at ribosomes in the cytoplasm and is based on information carried by mRNA.
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ribonucleic acid (RNA)
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Single-stranded nucleic acid that performs critical functions during protein synthesis and comes in three forms: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA.
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mitochondria
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Organelles in the cytoplasm of the cell where energy production for the cell takes place. Contains its own DNA.
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endoplasmic reticulum
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An organelle in the cytoplasm consisting of a folded membrane.
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ribosomes
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Structures composed primarily of RNA, which are found on the endoplasmic reticulum. They are the site of protein synthesis.
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nucleotide
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Molecular building block of nucleic acids DNA and RNA; consists of a phosphate, sugar, and base.
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base
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Variable component of the nucleotides that form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. In DNA, the bases are adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine. In RNA, uracil replaces thymine.
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enzyme
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A complex protein that is a catalyst for chemical processes in the body.
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mutation
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Errors in DNA replication that are not corrected and lead to permanent changes in the DNA of the cell.
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hemoglobin
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Protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen.
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hormone
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A natural substance (often a protein) produced by specialized cells in one location of the body that influences the activity or physiology of cells in a different location.
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amino acids
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Molecules that form the basic building blocks of protein.
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polypeptide
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A molecule made up of a chain of amino acids.
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genetic code
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The system whereby the nucleotide triplets in DNA and RNA contain the information for synthesizing proteins from the 20 amino acids.
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codon
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A triplet of nucleotide bases in mRNA that specifies an animo acid or the initiation or termination of a polypeptide sequence.
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gene
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The fundamental unit of heredity. Consists of a sequence of DNA bases that carries the information for synthesizing a protein (or polypeptide), and occupies a specific chromosomal locus.
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messenger RNA (mRNA)
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Strand of RNA synthesized in the nucleus as a complement to a specific gene (transcription). It carries the information for the sequence of amino acids to make a specific protein into the cytoplasm, where at a ribosome it is read and a protein molecule is synthesized (translation).
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transfer RNA (tRNA)
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RNA molecules that bind to specific amino acids and transport them to ribosomes to be used during protein synthesis.
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chromatin
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The diffuse form of DNA as it exists during the interphase of the cell cycle.
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mitosis
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Somatic cell division in which a single cell divides to produce two identical daughter cells.
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meiosis
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Cell division that occurs in the testes and ovaries that leads to the formation of sperm and ova (gametes).
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chromosome
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Discrete structures composed f condensed DNA and supporting proteins.
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centromere
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Condensed and constructed region of a chromosome. During mitosis and meiosis, location where sister chromatids attach to one another.
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diploid number
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Full complement of paired chromosomes in a somatic cell. In humans, the diploid number if 46 (23 pairs of different chromosomes).
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haploid number
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The number of chromosomes found in a gamete, representing one from each pair found in a diploid somatic cell. In humans, the haploid number is 23.
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homologous chromosomes
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Members of the same pair of chromosomes (or autosomes). Homologous chromosomes undergo crossing over during meiosis.
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locus
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The location of a gene on a chromosome. The locus for a gene is identified by the number of the chromosome on which it is found and its position on the chromosome.
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alleles
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Alternative versions of a gene. Different alleles are distinguished from one another by their different effects of phenotypic expression of the same gene.
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homozygous
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Having the same allele at the loci for a gene on both members of a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes).
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heterozygous
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Having two different alleles at the loci for a gene on a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes).
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zygote
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A fertilized egg.
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crossing over
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Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during the first prophase of meiosis; mechanism for genetic recombination.
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recombination
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The rearrangement of genes on homologous chromosomes that occurs during crossing over in meiosis. Source of variation arising out of sexual reproduction; important for increasing rates of natural selection.
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karyotype
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The complete chromosomal complement of an individual; usually based on a photograph of the chromosomes visualized under the microscope.
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autosomes
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Any of the chromosomes other than sex chromosomes.
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sex chromosomes
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In mammals, chromosomes X and Y, with XX producing females and XY producing males.
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nondisjunction error
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The failure of homologous chromosomes (chromatids) to separate properly during cell division. When it occurs during meiosis, it may lead to the formation of gametes that are missing a chromosome or have an extra copy of a chromosome.
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polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
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Method for amplifying DNA sequences using the Taq polymerase enzyme. Can potentially produce millions or billions of copies of a DNA segment starting from a very small number of target DNA.
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mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
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Small loop of DNA found in the mitochondria. It is clonally and maternally inherited.
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structural genes
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Genes that contain the information to make a protein.
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regulatory genes
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Guide the expression of structural genes, without coding for a protein themselves.
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genotype
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The genetic makeup of an individual. Genotype can refer to the entire genetic complement or more narrowly to the alleles present at a specific locus on two homologous chromosomes.
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phenotype
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An observable or measurable feature of an organism. Phenotypes can be anatomical, biochemical, or behavioral.
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ABO blood type system
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Refers to the genetic system for one of the proteins found on the surface of red blood cells. Consists of one gene with three cells: A, B, and O.
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recessive
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In a diploid organism, refers to an allele that must be present in two copies (homozygous) in order to be expressed.
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dominant
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In a diploid organism, an allele that is expressed when present only on one of a pair of homologous chromosomes.
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co-dominant
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In a diploid organism, two different alleles of a gene that are both expressed in a heterozygous individual.
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blending inheritance
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Discredited nineteenth-century idea that genetic factors from the parents averaged out or blended together when they were passed on to offspring.
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particulate inheritance
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The concept of heredity based on the transmission of genes (alleles) according to Mendelian principles.
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Mendel's law of segregation
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The two alleles of a gene found on each of a pair of chromosomes segregate independently of one another into sex cells.
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Mendel's law of independent assortment
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Genes found on different chromosomes are sorted into sex cells independently of one another.
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linkage
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Genes that are found on the same chromosome are said to be linked. The closer together two genes are on a chromosome, the greater the linkage and the less likely they are to be separated during crossing over.
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point mutation
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A change in the base sequence of a gene that results from the change of a single base to a different base.
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sickle cell disease
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An autosomal recessive disease caused by a point mutation in an allele that codes for one of the polypeptide chains of the hemoglobin protein.
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autosomal recessive disease
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A disease caused by a recessive allele; one copy of the allele must be inherited from each parent for the disease to develop.
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insertion mutation
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A change in the base sequence of a gene that results from the addition of one or more base pairs in the DNA.
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deletion mutation
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A change in the base sequence of a gene that results in the loss of one or more base pairs in the DNA.
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trinucleotide repeat diseases
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A family of autosomal dominant diseases that is caused my the insertion of multiple copes if a three-base pair sequence (CAG) that codes for the amino acid glutamine. Typically, the more copies inserted in the gene, the more serious the disease.
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autosomal dominant disease
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A disease that is caused by a dominant allele: Only one copy needs to be inherited from either parent for the disease to develop.
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x-linked disorders
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Genetic conditions that result from mutations to genes on the X chromosome. They are almost always expressed males, who only have one copy of the X chromosome; in females, the second X chromosome containing the normally functioning allele protects them from developing X-linked disorders.
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pedigree
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A diagram used in the study of human genetics that shows the transmission of a genetic trait over several generations of a family.
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qualitative variation
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Phenotypic variation that can be characterized as belonging to discrete, observable categories.
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quantitative variation
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Phenotypic variation that is characterized by the distribution of continuous variation (expressed using a numerical measure) within a population (for example, in a bell curve).
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polygenic traits
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Phenotypic traits that result from the combined action of more than one gene; most complex traits are polygenic.
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pleitropy
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The phenomenon of a single gene having multiple phenotypic effects.
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heritability
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The proportion of total phenotypic variability observed for a given trait that can be ascribed to genetic factors.
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twin method
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A method for estimating the heritability of a phenotypic trait by comparing the concordance rates of identical and fraternal twins.
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phenylketonuria (PKU)
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An autosomal recessive condition that leads to the accumulation of large quantities of the amino acid phenylalanine, which causes mental retardation and other phenotypic abnormalities.
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directional selection
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Natural selection that drives evolutionary change by selecting for greater or lesser frequency of a given trait in a population.
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stabilizing selection
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Selection that maintains a certain phenotype by selecting against deviations from it.
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gene flow
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Movement of genes between populations.
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inbreeding
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Mating between close relatives.
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genetic drift
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Random changes in gene frequency in a population.
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founder effect
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A component of genetic drift theory, stating that new populations that become isolated from the parent population carry only the genetic variation of the founders.
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genetic bottleneck
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Temporary dramatic reduction in size of a population or species.
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sexual selection
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Differential reproductive success within one sex of any species.
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sexual dimorphism
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Difference in shape, size, or color between the sexes.
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reproductive potential
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The possible offspring output by one sex.
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reproductive variance
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A measure of variation from the mean of a population in the reproductive potential of one sex compared with the other.
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systematics
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Branch of biology that describes patterns of organismal variation.
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homology
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Similarity of traits resulting from shared ancestry.
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analogous
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Having similar traits due to similar use, not due to shared ancestry.
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convergent evolution
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Similar form or function brought about by natural selection under similar environments rather than shared ancestry.
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cladistics
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Method of classification using ancestral and derived traits to distinguish patterns of evolution within lineages.
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cladogram
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Branching diagram showing evolved relationships among members of a lineage.
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species
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An interbreeding group of animals or plants that are reproductively isolated through anatomy, ecology, behavior, or geographic distribution from all other groups.
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speciation
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Formation of one or more new species via reproductive isolation.
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biological species concept
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Defines species as interbreeding populations reproductively isolated from other populations.
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evolutionary species concept
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Defines species as evolutionary lineages with their own unique identity.
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ecological species concept
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Defines species base on the uniqueness of their ecological niche.
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recognition species concept
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Defines species based on unique traits or behaviors that allow members of one species to identify each other for mating.
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reproductive isolating mechanisms (RIMs)
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Any factor – behavioral, ecological, or anatomical – that prevents a male and female of two different species from hybridizing.
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anagenesis
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Evolution of a trait or a species into another over a period of time.
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cladogenesis
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Evolution through the branching of a species or a lineage.
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allopatric speciation
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Speciation occurring via geographic isolation.
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parapatric speciation
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Speciation occurring when two populations have continuous distributions and some phenotypes in that distribution are more favorable than others.
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sympatric speciation
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Speciation occurring in the same geographic location.
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gradualism
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Darwinian view of slow, incremental, evolutionary change.
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macroevolution
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Evolution of major phenotypic changes over relatively short time periods.
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punctuated equilibrium
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Model of evolution characterized by rapid bursts of change, followed by long periods of stasis.
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adaptation
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A premise that all aspects of an organism have been molded by natural selection to a form optimal for enhancing reproductive success.
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reductionism
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Paradigm that an organism is the sum of many evolved parts and that organisms can best be understood through an adaptationist approach.
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null hypothesis
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The starting assumption for scientific inquiry that one’s research results occur by random chance. One’s hypothesis must challenge this initial assumption.
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Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
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The theoretical distribution of alleles in a given population in the absence of evolution, expressed as a mathematical equation.
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group selection
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Notion largely discredited by the rise of Darwinian theory proposing that animals act for the good of their social group or their species.
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kin selection
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Principle that animals behave preferentially toward their genetic kin.
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inclusive fitness
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Reproductive success of an organism plus the fitness of its close kin.
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polytypic species
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Species that consist of a number of separate breeding populations, each varying in some genetic trait.
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deme
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A local, interbreeding population that is defined in terms of its genetic composition (for example, allele frequencies).
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subspecies
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A group of local populations that share part of the geographic range of a species, and can be differentiated from other subspecies based on one or more phenotypic traits.
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race
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– In biological taxonomy, same thing as a subspecies; when applied to humans, sometimes incorporates both cultural and biological factors. The term is not used by biological anthropologists today.
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ethnobiology
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The study of how traditional cultures classify objects and organisms in the natural world.
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environmentalism
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The view that the environment has great powers to directly shape the anatomy of individual organisms.
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racism
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A prejudicial belief that members of one ethnic group are superior in some way to those of another.
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anthropometry
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The measurement of different aspects of the body, such as stature or skin color.
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ethnic group
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A human group defined in terms of sociological, cultural, and linguistic traits.
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population genetics
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The study of genetic variation within and between groups of organisms.
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microevolution
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The study of evolutionary phenomena that occur within a species.
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polymorphism
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Two or more distinct phenotypes (at the genetic or anatomical levels) that exist within a population.
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cline
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The distribution of a trait or allele across geographic space.
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maternal-fetal incompatibility
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Occurs when the mother produces antibodies against an antigen (for example, a red blood cell surface protein) expressed in the fetus that she does not possess.
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rhesus (Rh) system
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Blood type system that can cause hemolytic anemia of the newborn through maternal-fetal incompatability if the mother is Rh-negative and the child is Rh-positive.
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human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system
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Class of blood group markers formed by proteins expressed on the surface of white blood cells (leukocytes).
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autoimmune disease
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Occur when a body’s immune system attacks its own tissues.
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haplotypes
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Combinations of alleles (or at the sequence level, mutations) that are found together in an individual.
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Duffy blood group
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Red blood cell system useful for studying admixture between African- and European-derived populations.
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phylogeny
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An evolutionary tree indicating relatedness and divergence of taxonomic groups.
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lactose intolerant
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The inability to digest lactose, the sugar found in milk; most adult mammals (including humans) are lactose intolerant as adults.
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balanced polymorphism
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A stable polymorphism in a population in which natural selection prevents any of the alternative phenotypes (or underlying alleles) from becoming fixed or lost.
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frequency-dependent balanced polymorphism
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Balanced polymorphism that is maintained because one (or more) of the alternative phenotypes has a selective advantage over the other phenotypes only when it is present in the population below a certain frequency.
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heterozygous advantage
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With reference to a particular genetic system, the situation in which heterozygotes have a selective advantage over homozygotes (for example, sickle cell disease); a mechanism for maintaining a balanced polymorphism.
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adaptability
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The ability of an individual organism to make positive anatomical or physiological changes after short- or long-term exposure to stressful environmental conditions.
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acclimatization
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Short-terms changes in physiology that occur in an organism in response to changes in environmental conditions.
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Bergmann's rule
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Stipulates that body size is larger in colder climates to conserve body temperature.
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Allen's rule
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Stipulates that in warmer climates, the limbs of the body are longer relative to body size to dissipate body heat.
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