Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
77 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
|
Describe the central nervous system (CNS) |
The CNS consists of the brain & spinal cord. It's the central processing & control point for all human behaviour. The brain processes all incoming info from the senses & is then responsible for controlling behaviour that may result from this info The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the body, & allows messages to be passed from the body to the brain & from the brain to other parts of the body in order to get them to respond. Cells in the CNS are known as neurons & these cells communicate with around 1000 other cells at a time in huge networks |
|
|
|
What's a neuron? |
A cell within the nervous system |
|
|
|
What's a cell body? |
The main part of the cell where the nucleus sits |
|
|
|
What's a nucleus? |
Houses the genetic material for that particular neuron |
|
|
|
What are dendrites? |
Branches at the top & end of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons |
|
|
|
What's an axon? |
A long branch from the cell body that passes electrical impulses down to the end of the neuron to allow it to communicate with others |
|
|
|
What's an axon hillock? |
The area that connects the cell body to the axon |
|
|
|
What's a myelin sheath? |
The fatty deposit that provides electrical insulation for an axon & allows electrical nerve impulses to be passed along |
|
|
|
What are nodes of ranvier? |
Gaps between adjacent myelin sheath |
|
|
|
What are axon terminals? |
The end of the axon that leads to the terminal buttons |
|
|
|
What are terminal buttons? |
The very end of a neuron where the nerve impulses becomes a chemical message that can be passed to the dendrite of another neuron |
|
|
|
What are vesicles? |
Tiny sacs that contain molecules of neurotransmitter chemicals |
|
|
|
What's a neurotransmitter? |
Chemicals that pass messages between neurons |
|
|
|
Describe the structure & role of the neuron |
The neuron's cell body contains the nucleus which contains genetic material for the specific neuron & other materials that allow the cell to function, which provide the neuron with energy (mitochondria)
Attached to the cell body are dendrites that receive messages from other neurons in order to trigger an action potential (electrical impulses) within the cell
The axon is an extension of the cell body that passes the electrical impulses towards the axon terminals. At the top of the axon, attaching the axon to the cell body is the axon hillock, which is where the nerve impulse response is triggered from. Around the outside of the axon are layers of fatty deposits called myelin sheath that provide an insulating layer to the axon & help to speed up the rate of message transmission. The breaks between adjacent myelin sheath are nodes of ranvier
At the end of the axon are the axon terminals & on the ends of those are terminal buttons. Action terminals pass nerve impulses from the cell body to parts of the body that they control or activate - this could be another neuron, or it could be something like a muscle. These structures contain tiny sacs called vesicles that store neurotransmitters ready for the next stage of neural transmission |
|
|
|
Describe synaptic transmission |
An action potential (electrical impulse) is generated at the axon hillock. When the message reaches the terminal button it turns into a chemical message. At the axon terminal the neuron can pass its chemical message to other neurons across the synaptic gap Synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters travel down the neuron to the axon terminal & the neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic gap. The receptors on the postsynaptic neuron are designed to bind to a specific neurotransmitter & when they detect it the neurotransmitter molecule is absorbed into the postsynaptic neuron. Any neurotransmitter that isn't absorbed is destroyed by enzymes in the synaptic gap or reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron. |
|
|
|
What's the function of the neurotransmitter GABA? |
Inhibitor of messages - meaning GABA blocks messages. It calms nerves that are firing & promotes relaxation. However, low levels of GABA are linked to anxiety disorders |
|
|
|
What's the function of the neurotransmitter - Acetylcholine? |
Stimulates muscle contractions & has a key function in motor control & movement. It's also necessary for memory & other cognitive functions such as attention. Acetylcholine is also involved in expressions of emotions |
|
|
|
What's the function of the neurotransmitter - Noradrenaline? |
It's associated with expressing emotions & particularly in mood control. Noradrenaline is also involved in functions such as sleeping, dreaming & learning |
|
|
|
What's the function of the neurotransmitter - Dopamine? |
A chemical precursor to noradrenaline so their functions are quite similar. Dopamine is related to emotion, cognitive functions & control of movement. It's also been associated with dependency such as addiction & reinforcement in learning. Dopamine is also used in hormonal regulation |
|
|
|
What's the function of the neurotransmitter - Serotonin? |
Most commonly associated with mood control, particularly in the limbic system in the brain. It's also involved in functions such as pain, sleep, regulating body temperature & hunger |
|
|
|
Describe the effect of recreational drugs on the dopamine system |
Drugs act by changing the way neurotransmitters operate in the brain. Most psychoactive drugs of addiction work on the dopamine system. For example, heroin increases the amount of dopamine in the reward pathways of the brain by boosting the activation of dopaminergic synapses, causing a feeling of euphoria while it lasts
However, the brain naturally reacts to the sudden increase in dopamine & down-regulates (reduces) it's own natural production of dopamine, so when the drug's effects on the dopamine system wear off, the person has less dopamine than they would have for normal brain functioning. This causes dysphoria & motivates the person to take more heroin to stop them feeling bad & to reproduce a 'high' of when they took the drug Repeated use of the drug causes further down-regulation of production, this makes the person physically dependent on the drug to avoid dysphoria |
|
|
|
Give an evaluation strength of synaptic transmission |
There's evidence from people exhibiting certain behaviour who have low levels of certain neurotransmitters (e.g. low levels of serotonin have been linked to depression). This supports the idea that synaptic transmission is how messages pass in the brain
Brain scanning is a strong method as it can be reliable if more than one person checks the data & the activity measured is 'real' in coming from an individual. The method has scientific credibility |
|
|
|
Give an evaluation weakness of synaptic transmission |
Explanation is simplistic - Allen & Stevens found that less than half the neurotransmitters in transmission in the hippocampus arrives from the pre-synaptic neuron, being picked up by the post-synaptic neuron. Synaptic transmission appears to be more complex
Cause & effect - do genes cause the abnormal levels of neurotransmitters thus the exhibiting behaviour, or does it begin when neurochemical activity changes. There's no way to measure it
Evidence has come from studying lesions in animals. But generalising from animals to humans may not be a credible thing to do as there are differences |
|
|
|
Give a function of the frontal lobe |
Planning
Controlling our behaviour & emotions
Problem solving
Decision making |
|
|
|
Give a function of the parietal lobe |
Perception
Spelling
Knowledge of numbers |
|
|
|
Give a function of the occipital lobe |
Vision
Colour identification
Visual processing |
|
|
|
Give a function of the temporal lobe |
Understanding language
Facial recognition
Hearing & speech |
|
|
|
Use Phineas Gage (case study) to explain how personality & aggression are affected by damage to the frontal lobe |
Gage damaged his frontal lobe which seemed to cause an increase in aggression but he maintained normal memory, speech & motor skills His personality changed radically, he became irritable, quick tempered & impatient. According to friends "Gage was no longer Gage" |
|
|
|
Describe the midbrain & how I relates to aggression |
Midbrain contains an area called the periaqueductal grey matter (PAG), which links the amygdala & hypothalamus with the prefrontal cortex. It has a role in coordinating & integrating behavioural responses to perceived internal & external stressors.
Lesions to the PAG in rats that have recently given birth show an increase in aggression when the rats are confronted with potential threat in the form of unfamiliar male rats being introduced to the cage |
|
|
|
Describe the amygdala & how I relates to aggression |
Amygdala is the centre for emotions, emotional & motivation. It integrates internal & external stimuli & every sensory modality has an input, which when combined gives us an instinctive feeling or reaction to the environment that will include aggression. The prefrontal cortex also connects to the amygdala & it's this connection that may lead to the expression of aggression |
|
|
|
Describe the hypothalamus & how I relates to aggression |
The role of the hypothalamus is to maintain homeostasis through the regulation of hormones, including those that regulate sexual function. This is linked to aggressive behaviour in males via the production of testosterone |
|
|
|
Name the case study that shows how brain damage to the amygdala caused by a tumour, could be linked to aggression |
Charles Whitman (Texas University shooter) |
|
|
|
Name the 3 types of aggressive behaviour shown in animal studies, to explain brain function as an explanation of aggression |
Offensive behaviour - where they physically attack another animal
Defensive behaviour - shown in response to threat of attack
Predatory behaviour - involves attack another species to gain food |
|
|
|
What's the supporting evidence for brain functioning as an explanation of aggression as a human behaviour? |
Phineas Gage damaged his frontal lobes which seemed to cause an increase in aggression. Although, he retained normal memory, speech & motor skills. His personality changed radically - he became irritable, quick tempered & impatient.
Raine's study on 41 convictee murderers found that those prisoners who had carried out emotional impulsive violence showed lower activity in their prefrontal cortex (inhibits aggressive behaviour) & differences in the functioning of their limbic system. Neurotransmitters in the prefrontal cortex are linked to emotion, this suggests that this area has a role in emotions such as anger |
|
|
|
What's the challenging evidence for brain functioning as an explanation of aggression as a human behaviour? |
There are issues with the use of lab animals in terms of generalisability. This involves selectively damaging brain areas of animals (cats & rodents), although human brains are much more complex than those of small mammals. This has led some researchers arguing that the basics are the same between the species therefore these types of experiments are worthwhile |
|
|
|
What's the other explanation for brain functioning as an explanation of aggression as a human behaviour? |
Freud's psychodynamic approach |
|
|
|
Evaluate the usefulness of brain functioning as an explanation of aggression as a human behaviour? |
There are ethical considerations in the use of animals in research into human psychology. Some would argue that such research is immoral as the animals are harmed by these types of studies (e.g. having parts of their brain damaged). However, others would argue that using animals for human benefit in this way is no different from using them for meat or keeping them as pets |
|
|
|
Evaluate the testability of brain functioning as an explanation of aggression as a human behaviour? |
The idea that there's a biological basis for aggression is consistent with the genetic explanation because our genetic blueprint builds our brain structures & therefore people with a genetic blueprint for aggression would have brain structures the predispose them towards aggressive responses This could explain why, on average, males across all cultures tend to be more physically aggressive than females |
|
|
|
What are hormones? |
Chemical messages that transmit information around the body
They're carried in the blood & operate all around the body |
|
|
|
Describe the role of hormones (testosterone to explain human behaviour such as aggression |
Testosterone is an androgen (a chemical that develops or maintains male characteristics). Males & females have testosterone in their bodies but it's present in a much greater degree in the average male. Having high levels of testosterone is said to cause people to behave aggressively.
'Basel model of testosterone' suggests that the hormone is assumed to be a persistent trait that influences behaviour. However, the relationship isn't simply 'cause & effect', as the presence of testosterone just increases the chance of aggression |
|
|
|
What's the supporting human evidence for the role of hormones (testosterone) to explain human behaviour? |
D'Andrade found that boys are on average more aggressive than girls & boys have higher exposure to testosterone both pre-natally & post-natally
Hawke found that there have been cases where convicted sex offenders have been castrated & this led to a removal of aggression & a loss of sex drive |
|
|
|
What's the supporting animal evidence for the role of hormones (testosterone) to explain human behaviour? |
Motelica-Heino et Al found that castrated rodents show little or no aggressive behaviour but if there testosterone is replaced, for example, by injection, then they'll show typical aggressive behaviour Edwards found that injecting neonatal female rodents with testosterone made them act much more aggressively when given testosterone as adults compared to control females |
|
|
|
Evaluate the usefulness of the role of hormones (testosterone) to explain human behaviour |
Experimental research into testosterone & aggression can't be ethically carried out on humans.
However, it can be useful in explaining why individuals with high testosterone levels are aggressive. |
|
|
|
Evaluate the testability of the role of hormones (testosterone) to explain human behaviour |
Research into testosterone & aggression is based on correlational data, which means cause & effect conclusions can't be drawn. Also it isn't known whether another variable could've caused increases in both testosterone & aggression. |
|
|
|
Define evolution |
The gradual development of different kinds of living organisms from earlier forms during the history of the Earth. This means that all species share some genes with each other because they all have common ancestors |
|
|
|
Explain natural selection (survival of the fittest) |
The process in which organisms better adapted to their environment are healthier, live longer & reproduce more frequently passing on the genes that made them reproductively fit, to their offspring. For example, a giraffe, that depended on foliage from trees as their main source of ffos would be better adapted to the environment if they had the ability to reach more foliage higher up the tree. |
|
|
|
Explain genetic mutation |
A change in the genetic structure of an animal or plant that makes it different from others of the same kind. |
|
|
|
Explain sexual selection |
A form of natural selection; individuals that are successful in attracting a mate out-reproduce others in the population. |
|
|
|
Explain the environment of evolutionary adaption (EEA) |
The conditions that prevailed in the environment at the time that a species was adapting in response to. In psychology we're interested in the development of behavioural characteristics 'hardwired' in the brain so the EEA we're interested in would be at the point when humans lived in hunter-gatherer groups. |
|
|
|
Describe how evolution explains aggression |
In evolutionary terms success is measured by the production of offspring that survive to reproductive maturity. In the EEA, successful males were physically bigger & stronger & so would be those most capable of providing resources & protecting their families.
Psychologically, males who were naturally more aggressive when their resources were threatened or out hunting would've also had an adaptive advantage. Such men might also have been prepared to attack others & take their resources in order to provide for their families. This gave males an advantage in terms of mate choice. Successful females chose mates who provided good genes so big, strong men were favoured. Such men were also more likely to provide better resources & protection, suggesting that those who displayed aggressive traits would be more successful than those who didn't. Thus, competition for mates has driven masculine aggression. |
|
|
|
Explain why females are less physically aggressive as it would be an evolutionary disadvantage for females |
It would be an evolutionary disadvantage for females - who spend long periods of time pregnant & looking after young children in order to ensure their survival - to put themselves & their children at risk by engaging in conflict & hunting. According to evolutionary psychology this has led to female aggression being less physically violent & more verbal & emotional in nature. Buss proposed females would still be in competition for the best mates but achieved it by making other females appear less attractive to potential mates. |
|
|
|
What's the supporting evidence for the role of evolution & natural selection to explain human behaviour? |
Mazur showed a marked increase in fighting between males around puberty, when it's known that there's also a rapid increase in testosterone |
|
|
|
Evaluate the testability for the role of evolution & natural selection to explain human behaviour |
Any evolutionary theory is a 'post hoc' argument where the theory is developed to fit the facts. It's difficult to prove these ideas as they can't be scientifically tested; there are limited fossil records for behaviour so although they make sense & can explain the observed facts they can't be empirically tested as we can't access the EEA. |
|
|
|
Describe Freud's psychodynamic explanation of aggression |
It begins with 2 innate drives that he believed were the motivation for all human behaviour: Eros (life instinct) & Thanatos (death instinct).
The energy of Eros (known as libido) is focused on the preservation & enjoyment of life. This instinct has to balance out Thanatos, which is a drive towards death & destruction initially directed towards the self.
Human behaviour is seen as an interaction between Eros & Thanatos, to prevent us from hurting ourselves. The energy of Thanatos will often be redirected away from the person & towards others, resulting in aggression. However, we know that humans aren't uncontrollably aggressive all the time, this is due to something Freud called catharsis.
Catharsis is a way of satisfying our urges without resorting to violent impulses by watching violence or participating in minor aggression |
Eros & Thanatos Catharsis |
|
|
Explain the occurrence of aggression within the psyche |
Any issues in the development of either the ego (reality principle) or the superego (morality principle) could result in problems in managing the impulsive urges of the id (acts on instinctive drives) & therefore aggressive behaviour could be frequent. |
Id, ego & superego |
|
|
What's the supporting evidence for Freud's psychodynamic theory of aggression? |
Freud generated his theory from in-depth case studies, in which he looked at many aspects of a person's background & mental state. His theory was built from valid data & it focused on the dreams & the problems of each individual. |
|
|
|
What's the challenging evidence for Freud's psychodynamic theory of aggression? |
Freud's approach doesn't use the scientific method. Case study data is qualitative & personal, so an overall theory shouldn't be generated from such individual data. The findings aren't seen as generalisable. |
|
|
|
What's another explanation for Freud's psychodynamic theory of aggression? |
Brain functions Hormones (testosterone) Evolution & natural selection |
|
|
|
Evaluate the usefulness of Freud's psychodynamic theory of aggression |
Freud's ideas about treating mental health problems provided solutions that at the time were unavailable. E.g. talking therapies replaced barbaric treatments, so people were helped who wouldn't otherwise have been helped. |
|
|
|
Evaluate the testability of Freud's psychodynamic theory of aggression |
The psychodynamic concepts aren't measurable & so can't be rigourously tested. E.g. the unconscious is unreachable by normal means & the id, ego & superego are abstract concepts that can't be measured. There's a lack of scientific credibility. |
|
|
|
Give a similarity between biological explanations & the psychodynamic explanation |
Biological explanations focus on internal mechanisms, such as brain structure. Biological psychologists would consider that whether a person become aggressive or not is down to internal factors that are beyond external control. E.g. genes - factors of nature. The psychodynamic explanation focuses on internal aggression in the form of innate drives & unconscious thoughts & desires. E.g. the role of personality factors, id, ego, superego, which are naturally occurring elements of personality development of maturation. |
|
|
|
Give a difference between biological explanations & the psychodynamic explanation |
Biological: Scientific credibility - it's possible to scientifically test biological explanations of aggression objectively, because biological factors are things that can be seen & measured. Psychodynamic: the concepts are much more subjective so they're harder to test scientifically & more difficult to measure as they can't be physically seen. Biological: Much scientific evidence such as Raine et al Psychodynamic: Lack of scientific evidence. Many scientific studies into Freud's concepts contradict his claims. Bushman found that pps who engaged in catharsis & vented were more aggressive than those who didn't. |
|
|
|
State the classic study |
Raine et al |
|
|
|
State the aim of the classic study |
To look at measures of brain functioning using PET scans in a group of murderers who have pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) compared to non-murderers. The expectation was that the murderers would show evidence of brain dysfunction in their prefrontal cortex & in other areas that are thought to be linked to violent behaviour. |
Raine et al |
|
|
Describe the procedure of the classic study |
41 offender (39 male & 2 female) pleading NGRI to murder & 41 controls Controls were people of the same age & gender with no history of crime or physical & mental illness, except 6 who had schizophrenia NGRIs & Control group should be considered an opportunity sample At University of California, each pp was injected with the glucose tracer & then carried out a Continuous Performance Task (CPT) for 32 mins, while PET scan was performed Raine used other experimental controls: All pps were allowed to practice the CPT 10 mins before the tracer was injected to make sure they were all equally familiar with it Rained obtained consent from all pps & made sure none of them were on medication, the NGRIs had been kept medication-free for 2 weeks before the PET scan |
Raine et al |
|
|
Describe the results of the classic study |
Compared to the control group, murderers showed: - Lower activity in the prefrontal cortex - Lower activity in the parietal areas - Higher activity in the occipital lobe - Identical activity in the temporal lobe
In the subcortical areas, murderers also showed: - Lower activity in the corpus callosum - Asymmetrical activity in the amygdala - Asymmetrical activity in the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus - Higher level of activity in the right of the thalamus |
Raine et al |
|
|
State the conclusion of the classic study |
These brain differences have been associated with many behavioural changes that could be related to violent behaviour. For example, dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex has been linked to impulsivity, lack of self-control & an inability to learn from the consequences of behaviour. The hippocampus, amygdala & thalamus have all been related to learning & it's been suggested that abnormal activity here could result in criminals being unable to modify their own behaviour by learning from the consequences of their actions. |
Raine et al |
|
|
Evaluate the generalisability of the classic study |
Large sample (82) was used, which was the largest at the time for this sort of study. Anomalies, such as possible with unusual brain structure shouldn't skew the data too much. So the results are representative. However, the NGRIs are unusual offenders & aren't representative of "typical" murderers, much less of typical violent individuals. Also not all NGRIs killed their victims violently. |
Raine et al |
|
|
Evaluate the reliability of the classic study |
PET scans are a reliable brain imaging technique. It produces objective & replicable results & it can be tested & re-tested to check its reliability. The continuous performance task also ensures that all pps were concentrating on the same thing, which should ensure they all had similar types of brain activity. The control group were also matched on variables such as age & gender & were screened for physical & mental health. These controls & standardised procedure also add to the reliability. However, Raine admits that there were problems with the reliability with PET scans at the time. The results were sometimes unclear & had to be interpreted which means they were subjective, which lowers reliability. |
Raine et al |
|
|
Evaluate the application of the classic study |
Raine suggests that if the damage that causes these brain deficits can be prevented, people might be prevented from becoming murderers, they won't develop a murderous predisposition. This involves early intervention with at-risk children in school & monitoring people who have received brain injury. It also might be possible to treat people who suffer from these brain deficits. |
Raine et al |
|
|
Evaluate the validity of the classic study |
There's validity as the method is PET scanning & the sample are murderers as defined by law & so the study is measuring what it claims to measure. However, the CPT used could be criticised for being artificial & unconnected to violence. This lowers the ecological validity. As a natural experiment, this study can't show cause & effect. For example the NGRIs may have developed their brain deficits after the killing. |
Raine et al |
|
|
Evaluate the ethical issues of the classic study |
Informed consent - NGRIs agreed to have the PET scans because it would help their court case. Controls all gave their prior consent. Protecting pps from harm - PET imaging is an invasive procedure because the pps have to be injected with a radioactive tracer. |
Raine et al |
|
|
State the 3 aims of the contemporary study |
To see if social aggression could be caused by genes or the environment
To see if social aggression shared the same cause as physical aggression
To see if one type of aggression leads to another type |
Brendgen et al |
|
|
Describe the procedure for the contemporary study |
Pps were 234 six year old twins. 94 were MZ twins (44 male & 50 female), 73 were DZ same-sex twins (41 make & 32 female) & 67 were DZ mixed-sex twins. Pps already part of a longitudinal study in Canada. Pps studied at 5, 18, 30, 48, 60 months & then at 6 years to assess social adaptation at kindergarten. Written consent was obtained from the parents of all the children in a class before the study started. Behaviour ratings obtained from pps teacher & classmates, giving each twin a physical & social aggression score. Teacher was required to fill in 2 questionnaires, first measured social aggression & second measured physical aggression. Peer rating was completed by giving the children pictures of their classmates, researchers checked the students could identify the pictures & they were asked to circle children who fit a description. For each 'descriptor', the number of nominations received for each child was calculated to give a total social aggression & total physical aggression score. |
Brendgen et al |
|
|
Describe the results of the contemporary study |
Teacher was more likely to find boys to be more physically aggressive than girls & girls to be more socially aggressive. Moderate correlation between peer ratings & teacher ratings; children seen as physically aggressive were also described as socially aggressive. Peers were more likely to find boys more physically & social aggressive & physical aggression was found to lead to social aggression. Higher concordance rates found in MZ twins suggesting physical aggression is genetic. MZ twins were twice as likely to score the same for physical aggression compared to DZ twins. Correlations for social aggression in MZ & DZ twins were very similar suggesting social aggression is a consequence of environmental factors. |
Brendgen et al |
|
|
State the conclusion for the contemporary study |
Physical aggression has a strong genetic component (inherited) whereas social aggression is a consequence of the environmental factors. Children who were physically aggressive were also more likely to display social aggression. This could be due to an interaction between genes & environment. Children may be genetically predisposed to behave aggressively but the environment they're raised in may lead to more social aggression. |
Brendgen et al |
|
|
State the key question |
What are the implications for society if aggression is found to be caused by nature not nurture? |
Nature vs Nurture |
