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359 Cards in this Set
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What are the divisions of the nervous system?
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- CNS (brain and spinal cord)
- PNS (everything else: --- afferent (sensory) division, and --- efferent (motor) division ------ somatic motor division, and ------ autonomic nervous system --------- sympathetic nervous system, --------- parasympathetic nervous system, and --------- enteric nervous system |
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What are the differences between somatic and autonomic motor pathways?
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- somatic motor division sends motor signals to skeletal muscles; pathway is via:
--- upper motor neuron (cell body in pre-central gyrus, myelinated axon descends into tracts of spinal cord) and synapses with --- lower motor neuron (synapses with UMN in gray matter of spinal cord, exits the spinal cord through the ventral root, and carries the motor signal to the effector--skeletal muscle) - autonomic nervous system (ANS) sends motor signals to involuntary tissues such as organs, glands, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle via: --- myelinated pre-ganglionic neuronal cell body typically in hypothalamus, extends to a ganglion where it synapses with --- the unmyelinated post-ganglionic neuron, which carries the signal to the effector--organs, glands, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and lies entirely outside the CNS Down and dirty: 1) somatic is under conscious control/voluntary; autonomic is not 2) somatic axons extend directly from CNS to effector (skeletal muscle tissue) and release acetylcholine, while autonomic pathways consist of two neurons that synapse within a ganglion (except adrenal medulla) 3) somatic fibers release acetylcholine; autonomic preganglionic fibers release acetylcholine, but postganglionic fibers release acetylcholine or norepiniphrine 4) somatic effectors are skeletal muscles; autonomic effectors are smooth/cardiac muscle, organs, or glands 5) somatic response to neurotransmitters is excitatory; autonomic response is either excitatory or inhibitory 6) somatic neurons end by synapsing with a specific target cell; autonomic postganglionic neurons synapse with a chain of varicosities that diffusely release neurotransmitters into the tissue and stimulate many cell simultaneously |
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What are the divisions of the ANS, and what types of signals do they carry?
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- sympathetic - terminal ganglia near spinal cord; leave spinal cord in the thoracic and lumbar regions; "fight or flight" responses
- parasympathetic - terminal ganglia on or near effectors; leave spinal cord in cervical and sacral regions; "rest and digest" responses - enteric - somewhat independent nervous system in digestive organ walls; many signals/reflexes don't go to CNS at all; in many texts, included with parasympathetic Down and dirty: 1) sympathetic - thoracolumbar (TL) - "fight or flight"; ganglia near spinal cord; neurotransmitters are acetylcholine (at ganglion) and norepinephrine or acetylcholine (at effector) 2) parasympathetic - craniosacral (CS) - "rest and digest"; ganglia near or in effector; neurotransmitters are acetylcholine 3) enteric - digestive organs; may not involve CNS at all THERE ARE NO SYMPATHETIC FIBERS IN THE CS REGION!! To get to those areas, the signal must go via the paravertebral ganglionic chain!! THERE ARE NO PARASYMPATHETIC FIBERS IN THE TL REGION!! To get to those areas, the majority of the signals are via CN X - the vagus nerve |
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Where are the ganglia in the sympathetic nervous system?
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the ganglia are typically near the spinal cord, thus the preganglionic neuron is typically short and the postganglionic neuron is typically long:
- paravertebral (sympathetic trunk/chain) ganglia - chains of ganglia that parallel spinal cord for innervation of upper body and thoracic cavity via the sympathetic nerve route - collateral (prevertebral) ganglia - lie in front of the vertebral body for innervation of abdominal organs via splanchnic nerve route (celiac, superior mesenteric, inferior mesenteric) - adrenal medulla - release adrenomedullary hormones (vice neurotransmitters, thus is neuroendorcrine); the preganglionic neuron passes through the paravertebral and the celiac ganglion and goes directly to the adrenal medulla. (There is no true post-ganglionic neuron in this pathway. The cells of the adrenal medulla are modified postganglionic cells of the autonomic nervous system that have lost their axons and dendrites, receiving innervation from corresponding preganglionic fibers. The cells form clusters around large blood vessels. The cells of the adrenal medulla are called neuroendocrine cells/chromaffin cells and tie the ANS and endocrine systems together.) |
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Where are the ganglia in the parasympathetic nervous system?
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ganglia in the parasympathetic nervous system are:
- terminal ganglia (near target organs) or - intramural ganglia (within the walls of target organ) thus the preganglionic neurons are typically long, and the postganglionic neurons are typically short |
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What are the sympathetic pathways and where do they lead?
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The sympathetic pathways all begin with preganglionic neurons exiting the lateral horn, then ventral horn of the spinal cord, transiting the ventral roots to the spinal nerve, leaving the spinal nerve through the white ramus, and entering the paravertebral/sympathetic ganglion chain. From there they assume one of 5 pathways:
1) after entering the paravertebral/sympathetic ganglion chain, the preganglionic neuron synapses immediately, the postganglionic neuron exits the chain via the gray ramus, rejoins the spinal nerve and continues on to the thoracolumbar effector tissue (sweat glands, piloerector muscles, blood vessels of skin/skeletal muscles)--spinal nerve route 2) after entering the paravertebral sympathetic ganglion chain, the preganglionic neuron synapses immediately, the postganglionic neuron exits the chain via the gray ramus, and continues on directly to the effector organ (organs of the thoracic cavity)--sympathetic nerve route 3) after entering the paravertebral sympathetic ganglion chain, the preganglionic neuron travels up or down the chain to the cervical or sacral areas, synapses, and the postganglionic neuron exits the chain via a sympathetic nerve, and continues on to form carotid, cardiac, and pulmonary plexuses that extend to effectors in the head, heart, and lungs, or at the sacral level to effectors such as the sexual organs and urinary bladder--sympathetic nerve route 4) after entering the paravertebral sympathetic ganglion chain, the preganglionic neuron continues through the sympathetic ganglion, exiting as a splanchnic nerve and synapses in a collateral ganglion (part of the abdominal aortic plexus) before continuing on to effectors such as the liver, spleen and stomach (celiac ganglion); mid abdominopelvic organs (superior mesenteric ganglion); or lower abdominopelvic organs (inferior mesenteric ganglion)--splanchnic nerve route 5) after entering the paravertebral sympathetic ganglion chain, the preganglionic neuron passes through both the sympathetic ganglion and the celiac ganglion before it synapses with the neuroendocrine fibers of the adrenal medulla--adrenal medullar route |
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What are the parasympathetic pathways and where do they lead?
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- cranial nerves - preganglionic fibers via CNs III, VII, IX, and X synapse with terminal ganglia near effectors
---- upper nerves (oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal) innervate glands of face, pupil, and ciliary muscles ---- lower nerves (vagus) innervates organs of ventral cavity - sacral nerves - preganglionic fibers form pelvic nerves and innervate inferior parts of colon, bladder, and reproductive organs these pathways tend to have long preganglionic neurons and short postganglionic neurons that synapse near on in the target organ for a more localized response |
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What is sympathetic activation?
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- hypothalamus stimulates all of sympathetic system at once
- prepares body for "fight or flight" ---- elevates blood pressure ---- elevates body temperature ---- increases respiration ---- increases muscle tone ---- increases energy utilization ---- increases alertness and lack of pain sensations ---- creates euphoria (in contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system is more specifically targeted in its response; there is benefit in overall alarm, as in sympathetic activation, but danger in overall shutdown) parasympathetic responses include: - stimulation of digestion - stimulation of sexual arousal - decreased heart rate - decreased resipiration |
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Which neurotransmitters are produced by the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons in each division of the ANS?
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preganglionic:
- both systems are cholinergic, using acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter (nicotinic receptors--always excitatory) postganglionic: - parasympathetic is cholinergic, using acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter (muscarinic receptors--either excitatory or inhibitory) - sympathetic is primarily adrenergic, using norepinephrine as the neurotransmitter; but some cholinergic receptors using acetylcholine for dilation of vessels to muscles and for most sweat glands ---- alpha adrenergic receptors usually have excitatory effects (but inhibit intestinal motility) ---- beta adrenergic receptors are usually inhibitory (but excites cardiac muscle) |
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How does dual innervation work?
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- dual innervation constitutes receiving innervation from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which often cause opposing effects (e.g., one raises heart rate, the other lowers it)
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How do effectors with dual innervation distinguish between sympathetic and parasympathetic signals?
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for the most part, the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems use different neurotransmitters to produce opposing results
- sympathetic - mostly adrenergic - parasympathetic - mostly cholinergic (if there is only sympathetic innervation, different neurotransmitters will produce opposing results) |
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How does the sympathetic nervous system produce both excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in some tissues?
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the sympathetic nervous system can produce both excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in some tissues by utilizing different neurotransmitters to produce opposing results
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What are the different types of adrenergic and cholinergic receptors?
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- adrenergic receptors take in norepinephrine; there are
---- α₁ and α₂ receptors (1 excites, 2 inhibits) ---- β₁, β₂, and β₃ receptors (1 excites, 2 inhibits, 3 increases fat breakdown) - cholinergic receptors take in acetylcholine; there are ---- nicotinic (always excitatory) ---- muscarinic (excites or inhibits) |
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What is a visceral reflex?
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a reflex mediated by autonomic nerves and initiated in the viscera; one of 2 types of ANS reflexes:
- long reflex pathway - sensory neuron, to interneuron in CNS, to preganglionic neuron (body in CNS), through ganglion to postganglionic neuron to target organ (e.g., stretch receptors in bladder, via sacral spinal cord, to muscles of bladder to produce contraction) - short reflex pathway - sensory neuron to interneuron within autonomic ganglion, to postganglionic neuron, to target organ (no CNS involvement at all--common in enteric nervous system) |
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What is the difference between short and long reflex pathways?
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long reflex pathways involve the CNS, short reflex pathways do not.
- long reflex pathway - sensory neuron, to interneuron in CNS, to preganglionic neuron (body in CNS), through ganglion to postganglionic neuron to target organ (e.g., stretch receptors in bladder, via sacral spinal cord, to muscles of bladder to produce contraction) - short reflex pathway - sensory neuron to interneuron within autonomic ganglion, to postganglionic neuron, to target organ (no CNS involvement at all--common in enteric nervous system) |
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What are the four types of intercellular communication?
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- gap junctions - signaling molecules, nutrients, and electrolytes to move from cell to cell (direct intercellular; local signaling only; 1 particular ion--Ca commonly)
- synaptic communication - neurotransmitters travel across synaptic cleft to second cell (unidirectional--sensory in and motor out; short term effects) - paracrine communication - secreted into tissue fluids to affect nearby cells (chemical communication within a tissue; local diffusion; e.g., clotting factor) - endocrine communication - chemical messengers travel in the bloodstream to other tissues and organs (secretion of hormones for longer effects) |
PEGS
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What is the difference between nervous and endocrine activity? Exocrine and endocrine tissue?
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type of communication
- nervous: both electrical and chemical (uses speed of action potential; less persistent--need to keep firing to sustain effects) - endocrine: only chemical (slower and more persistent) speed and persistence of response - nervous: reacts quickly (1 to 10 ms), stops quickly - endocrine: reacts slowly (hormones release in seconds or days), effect may continue for weeks (slower and more persistent, but requires less energy) adaptation to long-term stimuli - nervous: response declines (adapts quickly) - endocrine: response persists (adapts slowly) localization of effect - nervous: targeted and specific - endocrine: general, widespread effects overlap of systems - some chemicals act as both hormones and neurotransmitters (e.g., norepinephrine, cholecystokinin, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, dopamine, and antidiuretic hormone) neuroendocrine cells (posterior pituitary, adrenal medulla) - neurons that release their secretion into the bloodstream (e.g. oxytocin and catecholamines) overlap of targets - hormones and neurotransmitters target same organ (e.g. norepinephrine and glucagon cause glycogen hydrolysis in liver) interdependence - neurons trigger hormone release and vice versa exocrine glands - release products onto body surfaces (e.g., skin or lining of digestive organs), often through a duct; products typically have extracellular effects endocrine glands - release secretion into interstitial spaces; picked up by bloodstream; dense capillary networks get hormones into blood; products typically have intracellular effects (some glands are more complex-- pancreas is both endocrine and exocrine; liver secretes hormones and bile into ducts, but albumin and blood-clotting factors into blood--these are not hormones, however) |
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How are endocrine reflexes controlled?
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endocrine reflexes are the regulatory pathways that control hormone levels and generally rely on feedback mechanisms (generally negative feedback, but sometimes positive; e.g., OT)
stimuli (humoral, hormonal, neural) - humoral stimuli - changes in fluids composition (e.g., fluid components of blood: Ca level, Na level, osmolarity) - hormonal stimuli - presence or absence of trigger hormone (e.g., GnRH) - neural stimuli - neural signal to gland stimulates activity (e.g., sympathetic nervous system to adrenal medulla) control - generally by negative feedback (product decreases stimulus) - occasionally positive feedback (product increases stimulus; e.g., OT for labor contractions) simple pathways - single hormone: single stimulus - hormone released when stimulus exceeds threshold - restores levels to below threshold level - e.g. blood glucose: insulin complex pathways - two or more hormones and multiple stimulus levels (e.g., GnRH stimulates FSH and LH, which stimulate the gonads, which release inhibin, which shuts off GnRH) |
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What are the roles of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?
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regulation, production, autonomic control
production of regulatory hormones (a.k.a. releasing hormones; also inhibiting hormones--e.g., PIH) - stimulate other endocrine glands to release their hormones direct production of hormones - oxytocin and ADH (to posterior pituitary) direct autonomic control - sympathetic signals to adrenal medulla (from his lecture, hypothalamus supports and regulates the endocrine system, is part of the limbic system, regulates the internal thermostat, mood, hunger/thirst) hypothalamic regulatory hormones: corticotropin-releasing hormones (CRH) - promotes secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by anterior pituitary gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) - promotes secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) by anterior pituitary growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) - promotes secretion of growth hormone (GH) by anterior pituitary thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) - promotes secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and prolactin (PRL) by anterior pituitary prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) - inhibits secretion of PRL by anterior pituitary somatostatin - inhibits secretion of GH and TSH by anterior pituitary |
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What are the parts of the pituitary gland?
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structure
- actually two glands --- anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) --- posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) - sits in sella turcica of sphenoid bone - suspended from hypothalamus by infundibulum anterior pituitary - glandular tissue - connection to hypothalamus --- hypophyseal portal system ----- capillaries in hypothalamus take blood to capillaries around pituitary ----- allows immediate chemical contact (thus regulatory hormones flow directly) --- hypothalamus produces controlling hormones ----- releasing hormones - trigger release of anterior pituitary hormones ----- inhibiting hormones - block release of anterior pituitary hormones ----- anterior pituitary releases hormones that activate other glands posterior lobe - actually a dangling piece of the hypothalamus (brain/nervous tissue) - structure --- composed of unmyelinated axons of hypothalmic neurons --- hormones secreted as neurotransmitters --- secretes oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) |
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What are the hormones of the anterior pituitary? What are their target organs? How are they regulated?
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thyroid stimulating hormone (thyrotropin, TSH)
- stimulates thyroid to release its hormones - released in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus - controlled by negative feedback adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - stimulates adrenal cortex to release its hormones - released in response to corticotropic releasing hormone (CRH) from hypothalamus - controlled by negative feedback gonadotropic hormones - triggered by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) - follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) --- stimulates maturation of follicle in ovary --- stimulates production of estrogens --- stimulates maturation of sperm in testes --- inhibited by inhibin from gonads - lutenizing hormone (LH) --- triggers ovulation --- stimulates production of estrogens in ovary --- stimulates interstitial cells of testis to produce androgens (aka ICSH) --- inhibited by inhibin from gonads (my guess, since FSH is) prolactin (PRL) - stimulates development of mammary glands - stimulates milk production - helps stimulate sperm production in males (minor role) - inhibited by release of PIH from hypothalamus - controlled by negative feedback growth hormone (GH or HGH) - (a.k.a. somatotropin) - stimulates protein synthesis in body cells --- increases metabolism --- increases lipid metabolism - activity mediated by somatomedins from liver - regulated through hypothalamus, which gets feedback from somatomedin levels - release peaks at night - stimulated by exercise |
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What are the hormones of the posterior pituitary? Where are these hormones actually produced? What are their target organs?
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anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
- decreases amount of water lost through kidneys - stimulated for release by decrease in blood pressure or increased solute concentration of blood --- osmoceptors (solutes) --- baroceptors (pressure) - can be inhibited by certain chemicals (e.g., EtOH, caffeine) oxytocin - helps stimulate contraction of uterus - helps stimulate release of milk from mammary glands - may stimulate contraction of vas deferens and prostate gland during ejaculation - may stimulate emotional responses to sex and birth these hormones are actually produced in the hypothalamus and are secreted by the posterior pituitary as neurotransmitters |
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Know (describe) the general structure of the thyroid gland.
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structure
- wrapped around anterior surface of trachea - two lobes connected by isthmus - composed of thyroid follicles - cells around a cavity filled with colloid - store thyroglobulin - used to build thyroid hormones cells - follicular cells - produce T3 and T4 - parafollicular cells -- produce calcitonin |
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What are the hormones of the thyroid gland? What is their function? Which cells produce them? How is their release regulated?
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cells
- follicular cells - produce T3 and T4 - parafollicular cells (a.k.a. C cells)-- produce calcitonin thyroxine (T4) and triiodothryronine (T3) - stimulated by TSH from anterior pituitary - contain iodine (only place in the body it's used) - carried by binding proteins in blood - allows reserve to be maintained in blood (thyroglobulin binding protein) - actively transported into cells (right on mitochondria) - stimulate --- increase aerobic respiration --- increase production of metabolic enzymes --- increase metabolism of cells calcitonin - NOT stimulated by TSH - function --- lowers blood calcium levels --- increase deposition of calcium to bones --- increase loss of calcium through kidneys --- blocks activity of osteoclasts - released by parafollicular cells/C cells - regulation --- stimulated by elevated blood Ca++ --- negative feedback regulates calciton/Ca++ levels |
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What is the hormone produced by the parathyroid gland? What is its function? How is it regulated?
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structure
- two pairs on posterior side of thyroid - round mass of glandular tissue hormones - parathormone (PTH) - released when blood Ca++ levels are too low - stimulates --- osteoclast activity --- resorption of Ca++ from urine --- increased Ca++ absorption through intestines - requires vitamin D to produce calcitriol from kidneys |
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Know the structure of the adrenal gland.
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(a.k.a. suprarenal glands)
structure - sits on top of each kidney - two layers --- outer cortex --- inner medulla - covered by fibrous capsule - fed by celiac, adrenal and renal arteries (redundant blood supply underlies its importance) |
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What are the hormones of the adrenal cortex that we discussed? What is their function? How are they regulated?
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cortical hormones
aldosterone (mineralcorticoids) - function --- stimulates resorption of Na+ from the kidneys, sweat glands, pancreas ----- increased resorption of Na+ leads to increased retention of water ----- increased sensitivity of salt sensors in tongue - regulation - released in response to: --- drop in blood Na++ --- increased blood K+ levels --- decreased blood pressure cortisol (glucocorticoids) - function --- prepare the body for times of stress ----- regulate blood glucose between meals -------- reduce rate of glucose consumption -------- trigger fatty acid and protein metabolism ----- can increase vasoconstriction provided by epinephrine (increase BP) --- reduce immune response/inflammation (a.k.a. hydrocortisone) - regulation --- stimulated by ACTH from anterior pituitary --- controlled by negative feedback - corticosterone also produced in lower quantities and has similar function androgens - function --- stimulate sexual development before puberty --- triggers development of male organs in male fetus --- replaced by gonadal androgens in adult males --- responsible for sex drive, muscular development in females, skeletal growth - regulation --- stimulated by ACTH small quantities of estrogens also produced as estradiol |
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What are the hormones of the adrenal medulla? What is their function? What
causes their release? |
medullary hormones
epinephrine and norepinephrine - function --- increases metabolism ----- increased production of ATP ----- increased breakdown of fat ----- increased heart rate ----- glucose sparing ------- triggers non-carbohydrate in muscles and other cells ------- leaves glucose for brain and other tissues - regulation --- sympathetic nervous system - released by neuroendocrine cells --- post-ganglionic neurons of sympathetic pathway |
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What hormone is produced by the pineal gland? What is its function?
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releases melatonin
- released in larger quantities in children - release reduced in adults - may be released in response to decreasing light levels circadian rhythms - may stimulate the sleep cycle - may inhibit release of GnRH - involution – shrinking of the organ (this gland and the thymus are much smaller in adults) |
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What hormones are produced by the pancreas? Which cells produce those hormones? What is the function of these hormones?
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structure
- inferior and slightly posterior to the stomach - joins intestines at pancreatic duct - both endocrine and exocrine in function --- exocrine cells (99% of organ mass) --- acinar cells endocrine cells - in pancreatic islets - alpha cells – produce glucagon - beta cells – produce insulin - other cells – produce hormones that help regulate release of insulin and glucagon and help regulate digestive secretion Hormones insulin - function - lowers blood glucose levels --- increased absorption of glucose by cells - increases number of glucose transport proteins in cell membrane --- increase glucose utilization - increase glucose metabolism --- stimulates glycogenesis in muscles and liver - regulation --- insulin production stops when glucose levels fall --- counteracted by glucagon glucagon - function - raises blood glucose levels --- stimulates glycogenolysis --- breakdown of triglycerides --- gluconeogenesis |
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What is gluconeogenesis? What is glycogenesis? What is glycogenolysis? When do these activities happen and what stimulates them?
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gluconeogenesis - the synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, such as amino acids and glycerol. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidneys whenever the supply of carbohydrates is insufficient to meet the body's energy needs. Gluconeogenesis is stimulated by cortisol and other glucocorticoids and by the thyroid hormone thyroxine (T4). Formerly called glyconeogenesis. It occurs during periods of fasting, starvation, or during intense exercise.
glycogenesis - the conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage in the liver (or, the synthesis of glycogen from glucose) glycogenolysis - the formation of blood glucose by hydrolysis of stored liver glycogen |
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What hormones are produced by the kidney and what is their function?
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calcitriol (vitamin D3)
- produced from cholecalciferol from skin - released in response to PTH - stimulates absorption of Ca++ from intestines - stimulates osteoclast activity erythropoietin - stimulate production of red blood cells renin - begins renin-angiotensin cascade - elevates blood pressure/volume by stimulating ADH and aldosterone release |
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What hormones are produced by the heart? What is their function?
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atrial natriuretic peptides (ANP)
- lower blood pressure/volume by increasing release of Na+ |
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What hormones are produced by the thymus? What is their function?
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thymosins and related hormones
- promotes development and differentiation of some immune system tissues |
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What hormones are produced by the gonads? What stimulates their production and release?
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testes
- interstitial cells produce testosterone ovaries - follicular cells produce estrogens - corpus luteum produces progesterone |
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What hormone is produced by adipose tissue? What are its functions?
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leptin
- released by adipocytes in response to elevated blood glucose and triglyceride levels - triggers feelings of satiation in hypothalamus along with Peptide YY from intestines - also regulates release of GnRH and gonatotropins - controls reproductive activity in individuals without enough body fat |
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What is the difference between the 3 types of hormones? How do they react differently when arriving at the target cell? What is their eventual fate?
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steroids - cortical hormones, sex hormones, calcitriol (Vitamin D3 is a steroidal hormone)
biogenic amines (monoamines) - amino acid derivatives - epinephrine/norepinephrine (catecholamines) - thyroid hormones - melatonin peptides - most other hormones transport - peptides and most monoamines --- hydrophilic --- dissolve in blood plasma --- must bind to cell surface receptors which are linked to second-messenger systems on the other side of the plasma membrane (e.g., cAMP, DAG, IP3) - steroids and thyroid hormones --- hydrophobic --- bound to transport proteins --- enter the target cell and act directly on the genes action - hydrophobic hormones --- readily penetrate cell membrane --- bind to receptors inside the cell - may bind to DNA promoters or similar structures - hydrophilic hormones --- bind to extracellular receptors --- activate second messenger system ----- hormone binds to receptor ----- G protein attached to receptor activates cAMP ----- cAMP acts as secondary messenger - activates pathway in cell fate - hydrophilic hormones --- removed from circulation by liver and other cells --- very short-lived circulation --- half life is minutes to hours - hydrophobic (bound) hormones --- much longer persistence --- half life is days or weeks |
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Structural comparison of characteristics of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems:
- origin of fibers - preganglionic fibers - postganglionic fibers - ganglia |
- thoracolumbar vs. craniosacral
- short and cholinergic vs long and cholinergic - long and adrenergic* vs short and cholinergic - paravertebral and collateral vs terminal and intramural *sympathetic nervous system postganglionic receptors are mainly adrenergic, but a few are cholinergic |
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Comparison of antagonistic characteristics of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems:
- secretion (salivary, pancreatic, lacrimal) - heart rate - bronchioles - digestive organs - bladder |
- inhibited vs stimulated
- increases vs decreases - dilation vs constriction - inhibited vs stimulated - inhibited vs stimulated |
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Which of the following are examples of the antagonistic effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?
a. the sympathetic division speeds up heart rate while the parasympathetic division slows it down b. salivary glands secrete saliva in response to parasympathetic stimulation while sympathetic stimulation induces the same glands to secrete mucus c. sympathetic division induces dilation of the pupil while the parasympathetic division induces the pupil to constrict |
a. the sympathetic division speeds up heart rate while the parasympathetic division slows it down
and c. sympathetic division induces dilation of the pupil while the parasympathetic division induces the pupil to constrict |
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Identify the correct pairin of the components of the adrenal gland:
a. cortex: the inner part b. cortex: the middle part c. medulla: the inner part d. medulla: the outer part e. medulla: the middle part |
c. medulla: the inner part
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______ _____ refers to the fact that many structures are innervated by nerve fibers from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
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dual innervation
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Which of the following is an example of the cooperative effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?
a. both autonomic divisions increase heart rate b. both autonomic divisions stimulate salivary gland secretion c. both autonomic divisions induce dilation of the pupil |
b. both autonomic divisions stimulate salivary gland secretion
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Indicate the regions of the spinal cord from which the nerves of the sympathetic nervous system arise. (Select all that apply.)
a. sacral b. cervical c. lumbar d. thoracic |
c. lumbar
and d. thoracic this is why the sympathetic nervous system is also called the thoracolumbar division as it arises from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord |
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The cell bodies of sympathetic preganglionic fibers are found in the _______ horn of the T1-L2 spinal cord.
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lateral
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_______ is the efferent pathway that transmits both excitatory and inhibitory signals to its effector cells.
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autonomic
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The parasympathetic division arises from the _____ and the ____.
a. sacral spinal cord b. lumbar spinal cord c. thoracic spinal cord d. cervical spinal cord e. brainstem |
a. sacral spinal cord
and e. brainstem |
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Identify the region of the CNS that has nuclei for regulating cardiac and vasomotor control, salivation, swallowing, sweating, gastrointestinal secretion, bladder control, and pupillary constriction/dilation.
a. cerebral cortex b. hypothalamus c. brainstem d. spinal cord |
c. brainstem
(while the hypothalamus is the major control center for the ANS, it influences nuclei that reside in the brainstem) |
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How many nerve fibers connect the CNS with the effector in the ANS?
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2
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The ______ division of the ANS and the adrenal medulla develop from the same embryonic tissue
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sympathetic
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Name the division of the ANS that has general and widespread effects, as opposed to effects that are specific and local.
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sympathetic
(there is basis for system-wide alarm, but not for system-wide shutdown) |
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The parasympathetic fibers that arise from S2-S4 form the pelvic _____ nerves which lead to the inferior hypogastric plexus.
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splanchnic
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Where are the ganglia of the parasympathetic nervous system located?
a. near or within the target organ b. near or within the brain c. near the spinal column |
a. near or within the target organ
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Identify the division of the ANS that has relatively long preganglionic fibers and short postganglionic fibers.
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parasympathetic
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_______ nerves convey impulses from the sympathetic trunk ganglia to collateral ganglia.
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Splanchnic
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Identify the stimuli that trigger the limbic system to influence hypothalamic control of the ANS. (Select all that apply.)
a. anger b. thirst c. temperature d. fear e. anxiety f. hunger |
a. anger
d. fear e. anxiety (the hypothalamus regulates thirst, temperature, and hunger independently of the limbic system, which is concerned with connecting sensory and mental experiences with the ANS) |
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The neurotransmitter norepinephrine binds to _____ receptors.
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adrenergic
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Which of the following are regulated by autonomic nuclei in the brainstem?
a. vasomotor control b. flexion and extension of the arm c. salivation d. sweating e. pupillary constriction |
a. vasomotor control
c. salivation d. sweating e. pupillary constriction |
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Describe the paravertebral or sympathetic chain ganglia.
a. longitudinal series of ganglia adjacent to both sides of the vertebral column b. series of sympathetic gangllia located within the brain c. series of parasympathetic ganglia located within the spinal cord d. longitudinal series of parasympathetic ganglia |
a. longitudinal series of ganglia adjacent to both sides of the vertebral column
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The axons of the white communicating ramus are ____ and _____ and _____.
a. parasympathetic b. preganglionic c. postganglionic d. myelinated e. unmyelinated f. sympathetic |
b. preganglionic
d. myelinated f. sympathetic |
|
|
|
Preganglionic sympathetic fibers typically synapse with sympathetic chain ganglia, unless they pass through, forming ______ nerves that instead enter collateral ganglia.
|
splanchnic
|
|
|
|
Name the three collateral ganglia of the abdominal plexus.
|
- celiac ganglion
- superior mesenteric ganglion - inferior mesenteric ganglion |
|
|
|
Normally, the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems exhibit a background rate of activity referred to as _______ tone.
|
autonomic
|
|
|
|
In the circulation, ______ occurs in response to the lowest rate of sympathetic nerve firing to the smooth muscle cells of the blood vessels.
a. vasoconstriction b. vasodilation |
b. vasodilation
|
|
|
|
Which of the following are only innervated by sympathetic nerve fibers. (Select all that apply.)
a. cardiac muscle b. sweat glands c. liver d. piloerector muscles e. adrenal medulla |
b. sweat glands
d. piloerector muscles e. adrenal medulla |
|
|
|
True or false: The limbic system is the part of the brain involved with coordination of motor input.
|
false
(The limbic system is the part of the brain involved with emotion, olfaction, and learning.) |
|
|
|
Which of the following are autonomic reflexes regulated by the spinal cord. (Select all that apply.)
a. erection b. defecation c. micturition d. vomiting e. ejaculation |
a. erection
b. defecation c. micturition e. ejaculation |
|
|
|
______ ______ describes the continual input from the sympathetic division to smooth muscle of blood vessels, resulting in a partial and constant tension in the blood vessel walls.
|
Vasomotor tone
|
|
|
|
If the nerves to visceral effectors are severed, the effectors exhibit:
a. hypersensitivity b. flaccid paralysis |
a. hypersensitivity
|
|
|
|
Name the division of the ANS that stimulates the breakdown of adipose tissue.
|
sympathetic
|
|
|
|
Name the type of nerve fibers that secrete norepinephrine.
a. preganglionic nerve fibers of the parasympathetic division b. postganglionic nerve fibers of the parasympathetic division c. postganglionic nerve fibers of the sympathetic division d. preganglionic nerve fibers of the sympathetic division |
c. postganglionic nerve fibers of the sympathetic division
|
|
|
|
The ______-adrenergic receptor is usually inhibitory and acts through a cAMP second-messenger system.
|
beta
|
|
|
|
Name the type of receptors that can either be inhibited or excited by the binding of acetylcholine (ACh).
|
Muscarinic
|
|
|
|
Which of the following are sympathetic effects on the integumentary system? (Mark all that apply.)
a. secretion from apocrine sweat glands b. relaxation of piloerector muscles c. secretion from merocrine sweat glands |
a. secretion from apocrine sweat glands
c. secretion from merocrine sweat glands |
|
|
|
______ receptors occur at synapses of all autonomic ganglia, on cells of the adrenal medulla and at the neuromuscular junction.
|
Nicotinic
|
|
|
|
_____ disease is a disorder of the sympathetic nervous system which induces intermittent attacks of paleness, cyanosis, and pain in the digits due to excessive vasoconstriction.
|
Raynaud
|
|
|
|
Name the division of the ANS that causes pupillary constriction and the contraction of the ciliary muscle for near vision.
|
parasympathetic
|
|
|
|
Indicate which of the following are parasympathetic effects on the digestive system. (Select all that apply.)
a. increased gastrointestinal secretion b. glycogen breakdown in the liver c. increased pancreatic enzyme secretion d. increased gastric motility e. increased pancreatic insulin secretion |
a. increased gastrointestinal secretion
c. increased pancreatic enzyme secretion d. increased gastric motility |
|
|
|
Which of the following are types of receptors that bind norepinephrine?
a. beta-adrenergic b. nicotinic c. alpha-adrenergic d. muscarinic |
a. beta-adrenergic
c. alpha-adrenergic |
|
|
|
Which of the following are sympathetic effects on the circulatory system? (Select all that apply.)
a. increased blood clotting b. vasoconstriction of blood vessels in the skin c. decreased heart rate d. vasoconstriction of visceral blood vessels e. vasodilation of visceral blood vessels f. increased heart rate |
a. increased blood clotting
b. vasoconstriction of blood vessels in the skin d. vasoconstriction of visceral blood vessels f. increased heart rate |
|
|
|
The _______ contains both sympathetic and parasympathetic axons that send nerves to the abdominal and pelvic organs.
a. collateral ganglia b. splanchnic nerves c. abdominal aortic plexus |
c. abdominal aortic plexus
|
|
|
|
A(n) ______-adrenergic receptor is usually excitatory and works by a calcium second messenger system or by inhibiting cAMP.
|
alpha
|
|
|
|
Axons of the gray communicating ramus are:
a. postganglionic b. parasympathetic c. unmyelinated d. preganglionic e. sympathetic f. myelinated |
a. postganglionic
c. unmyelinated e. sympathetic |
|
|
|
Regarding the length of nerve fibers, the sympathetic division has _____ preganglionic fibers and _____ postganglionic fibers.
|
short; long
|
|
|
|
The autonomic nervous system:
a. acts independently of the central nervous system b. originates in the CNS and receives input from the cerebral cortex, the hypothalamus, and the medulla oblongata. |
b. originates in the CNS and receives input from the cerebral cortex, the hypothalamus, and the medulla oblongata.
|
|
|
|
Name the brain region referred to as the master regulator of the ANS and endocrine system since its functions include control of hormone secretion, thermoregulation, satiation, regulation of circadian rhythms, memory, and emotional responses.
|
hypothalamus
|
|
|
|
Name the division of the ANS that has the following effects on the circulatory system: decreased heart rate, vasodilation of visceral blood vessels, and vasodilation of the skin's blood vessels.
|
parasympathetic
|
|
|
|
All receptors that bind to ACh are referred to as _____ receptors.
|
cholinergic
|
|
|
|
Which of the following are sympathetic effects on the reproductive system. (Select all that apply.)
a. labor contractions of the uterus b. penile or clitoral erection c. stimulation of glandular secretion d. smooth muscle's role in orgasm |
a. labor contractions of the uterus
d. smooth muscle's role in orgasm |
|
|
|
Within an autonomic output pathway, the ____ fiber is unmyelinated and synapses with visceral effectors.
|
postganglionic
|
|
|
|
Describe a preganglionic neuron.
a. it is myelinated and extends from the CNS to the target cell b. it is unmyelinated and extends from the autonomic ganglion to the target cell c. it has its cell body in the spinal cord or the brainstem and its axon terminates in a ganglion |
c. it has its cell body in the spinal cord or the brainstem and its axon terminates in a ganglion
|
|
|
|
Identify the efferent pathway that lacks a ganglion and has a single nerve fiber that extends from CNS to effector.
|
somatic pathway
|
|
|
|
Identify the components of a visceral reflex arc:
a. smooth muscle b. receptor in the stomach c. afferent neurons d. efferent neurons e. skeletal muscle f. receptor in the epidermis |
a. smooth muscle
b. receptor in the stomach c. afferent neurons d. efferent neurons |
|
|
|
A _____ _____ is an unconscious, automatic, stereotyped response to a stimulus involving effectors, but with a slower response.
|
visceral reflex
|
|
|
|
Name the cranial nerve that carries parasympathetic fibers which regulate the secretion of saliva from the parotid gland.
|
CN IX - glossopharyngeal
(CN VII - facial carries parasympathetic fibers for the submandibular salivary gland) |
|
|
|
Identify the cranial nerve that supplies parasympathetic fibers to viscera of the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
|
CN X - vagus
|
|
|
|
Identify those cranial nerves that carry parasympathetic fibers from the brainstem. (Select all that apply.)
a. CN X - vagus b. CN V - trigeminal c. CN III - oculomotor d. CN VII - facial e. CN IX - glossopharyngeal f. CN XII - hypoglossal |
a. CN X - vagus
c. CN III - oculomotor d. CN VII - facial e. CN IX - glossopharyngeal |
|
|
|
Identify the division of the ANS that has the following effects on the urinary system: contraction of the urinary bladder wall and relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter.
|
parasympathetic
|
|
|
|
Name the cranial nerve that regulates secretion from the tear glands, the salivary glands, and the nasal glands.
a. oculomotor (III) b. glossopharyngeal (IX) c. facial (VII) d. vagus (X) |
c. facial (VII)
|
|
|
|
Identify the parasympathetic function of the oculomotor nerve.
a. regulate te shape of the lens for vision and the diameter of the pupil b. regulate secretion from the tear glands, salivary glands, and nasal glands c. regulate salivation d. regulate heart rate and respiratory rate |
a. regulate te shape of the lens for vision and the diameter of the pupil
|
|
|
|
Name the nervous system division that has effectors that are glands, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.
|
visceral motor
|
|
|
|
The ANS is also referred to as the ______ motor system to distinguish it from the somatic nervous system.
|
visceral
|
|
|
|
Identify the division of the ANS that is associated with reduced energy expenditure and normal body maintenance.
|
parasympathetic
|
|
|
|
Which of the following hormones are secreted by the adrenal medulla? (Select all that apply.)
a. aldosterone b. epinephrine c. norepinephrine d. cortisol |
b. epinephrine
c. norepinephrine |
|
|
|
The ______ nervous system is a motor nervous system that controls glands, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.
|
autonomic
|
|
|
|
Name the nervous system division that is usually under involuntary control.
|
autonomic
|
|
|
|
Name the division of the ANS that is associated with the "fight-or-flight" response.
|
sympathetic
|
|
|
|
Name the division of the ANS that is reponsible for increasing heart rate, alertness, blood pressure, pulmonary airflow, blood-glucose concentration, and blood flow to the heart and skeletal muscles.
|
sympathetic
|
|
|
|
Name the disorder that results from an interruption to sympathetic innervation of teh head. It presents with chronic unilateral pupillary constriction, sagging of the eyelid, flushing of the skin, and lack of facial perspiration and is called _______ syndrome.
|
Horner
|
|
|
|
Neurons in the _______ nervous system division secrete only acetylcholine.
|
somatic (skeletal muscle uses ACh)
|
|
|
|
From which region of the CNS do the nerves of the sympathetic nervous system arise? (Select all that apply.)
a. sacral b. cervical c. thoracic d. lumbar |
c. thoracic
d. lumbar |
|
|
|
Neural divergence is extensive in the ______ division of the ANS, while in the _____ division, divergence is minimal.
|
- sympathetic (1 to 10-20)
- parasympathetic (1 to <5) |
|
|
|
In the sympathetic nervous system, the _____ nerve fibers are long, while the _____ fibers are short.
|
- postganglionic
- preganglionic |
|
|
|
Name the plexuses that receive parasympathetic fibers from the vagus nerve. (Select all that apply.)
a. esophageal plexus b. cardiac plexus c. cervical plexus d. pulmonary plexus e. brachial plexus |
a. esophageal plexus
b. cardiac plexus d. pulmonary plexus |
|
|
|
Name the neurotransmitter released by both preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division.
|
acetylcholine
|
|
|
|
Describe teh effect of the parasympathetic nervous system on the respiratory system.
a. increased secretion by mucous glands via beta-2 receptors b. decreased secretion by mucous glands via alpha-1 receptors c. bronchoconstriction d. bronchodilation |
c. bronchoconstriction
|
|
|
|
The _____ nervous system consists entirely of neurons embedded in the wall of the digestive tract and does not originate from the brain or spinal cord.
|
enteric
|
|
|
|
Identify the effects of the parasympathetic division on the adrenal medulla.
a. it has no effect on the adrenal medulla b. it inhibits secretion by the adrenal medulla c. it stimulates secretion by the adrenal medulla |
a. it has no effect on the adrenal medulla
|
|
|
|
During and immediately following a carbohydrate-rich meal, the beta cells of the pancreas secrete the hormone _____.
|
insulin
|
|
|
|
_______ is a term that refers to the blood glucose concentration.
|
Glycemia
|
|
|
|
_______ is a term that refers to the blood glucose concentration.
|
Glycemia
|
|
|
|
Endocrine secretions interact with their target cells and lead to:
a. changes in the endocrine gland through negative feedback b. intracellular changes c. exocrine secretions d. changes in the interstitial fluids |
b. intracellular changes
|
|
|
|
Endocrine secretions interact with their target cells and lead to:
a. changes in the endocrine gland through negative feedback b. intracellular changes c. exocrine secretions d. changes in the interstitial fluids |
b. intracellular changes
|
|
|
|
List the hormones produced by the heart.
|
- atrial natriuretic peptide
- brain natriuretic peptide |
|
|
|
List the hormones produced by the heart.
|
- atrial natriuretic peptide
- brain natriuretic peptide |
|
|
|
The pituitary gland is composed of two structures: the neurohypophysis and the ________.
|
adenohypophysis
|
|
|
|
The pituitary gland is composed of two structures: the neurohypophysis and the ________.
|
adenohypophysis
|
|
|
|
The suckling of an infant triggers a(n) _____ reflex mediated by the hormone oxytocin.
a. neuroendocrine b. neurological c. adrenal d. endocrine |
a. neuroendocrine
|
|
|
|
Local hormone substances called ______ do not travel to their target cells by way of the blood, but diffuse from their source to nearby cells in the same tissue.
|
paracrines
|
|
|
|
Neurons that release their secretions into the bloodstream are called:
|
neuroendocrine cells
|
|
|
|
The anterior pituitary hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone are classified as ______ hormones because they target and stimulate the release of hormones from the gonads.
|
gonadotropin (gonadotropic?)
|
|
|
|
The rapid metabolism of fats that occurs in diabetes mellitus promotes an osmotic diuresis that, in turn, can result in _______, _______, and _______.
|
- ketoacidosis
- dehydration - electrolyte imbalances |
|
|
|
Gonadotropin secretion might be suppressed by the hormone _____, helping with the timing of the onset of puberty in humans. This is still speculative.
|
melatonin
|
|
|
|
Cells called spongiocytes are found within the zona ______ of the adrenal cortex.
|
fasciculata
|
|
|
|
List the functions of transport proteins.
|
- protect hormones from filtering by kidneys
- protect hormones from enzyme breakdown |
|
|
|
Enteroendocrine cells of the small intestine produce the hormone _____ in response to fat in the chyme arriving from the stomach. Its target tissues include the pancreas and the gallbladder.
|
cholecystokinin
|
|
|
|
The bone hormone ______ increases the pancreatic output of insulin which increases the sensitivity of other body tissues to insulin.
|
osteocalcin
|
|
|
|
Pancreatic polypeptide is secreted by the ______ cells and/or _______ cells of the pancreas.
|
- F
- PP |
|
|
|
Thyroid hormone is unique in that it is a monoamine that is composed of two amino acids called:
|
tyrosine
|
|
|
|
Enteroendocrine cells within the pancreas, called G cells, secrete ______ which stimulates production of stomach acid.
|
gastrin
|
|
|
|
Give an example of a hormone that is secreted as a preprohormone.
|
insulin
(it begins as preproinsulin; when the signal peptide is removed, the chain folds back on itself and forms three disulfide bridges and is then called proinsulin, which is packaged into a secretory vesicle where enzymes remove a large middle segment called the connecting peptide; the remainder is now insulin, composed of 2 polypeptide chains totaling 51 amino acids, connected to each other by two of the three disulfide bridges) |
|
|
|
Name the condition that results from excessive cortisol secretion.
|
Cushing's syndrome
|
|
|
|
Pancreatic alpha cells secrete the hormone ______ when serum glucose levels drop.
|
glucagon
|
|
|
|
True or false: If excessive amounts of hormones are present they may bind to receptor sites for other related hormones and mimic their effects.
|
true
|
|
|
|
The thyroid gland contains areas of C (clear) cells, also called ______ cells, between the follicles.
|
parafollicular
|
|
|
|
The initial response to stress is an alarm reaction mediated mainly by _____ from the sympathetic nervous system and _____ from the adrenal medulla.
|
- norepinephrine
- epinephrine |
|
|
|
______ is a condition characterized by a rapid decline in blood calcium level that can lead to a fatal tetany.
|
hypoparathyroidism
|
|
|
|
Histamine and nitric oxide diffuse to and interact only with nearby tissues. Thus histamine and nitric oxide would be classified as _____ messengers.
|
paracrine
|
|
|
|
The hormone melatonin is produced from the neurotransmitter called _______.
|
serotonin
|
|
|
|
Growth hormone stimulates the release of _____ into the blood. In doing so, GH reduces the use of protein for energy.
|
fatty acids and glycerol
|
|
|
|
How does cortisol function in the stage of resistance?
|
it promotes the breakdown of fat and protein
|
|
|
|
Which of the following hormones are classified as steroid hormones?
a. epinephrine b. thyroid hormone c. cortisol d. oxytocin e. testosterone |
c. cortisol
e. testosterone |
|
|
|
Which of the following hormones are secreted by the ovary?
a. growth hormone b. follicle-stimulating hormone c. progesterone d. inhibin e. estradiol |
c. progesterone
d. inhibin e. estradiol |
|
|
|
Hypothalamic inhibiting hormones inhibit the release of hormones from the _____ _____ gland.
|
anterior pituitary
|
|
|
|
A pancreatic ______ is a small cluster of endocrine cells in the pancreas that secretes insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and other intercellular messengers.
|
islet
|
|
|
|
The layers of the adrenal gland that secrete glucocorticoids and androgens are the zona ____ and the zona ______.
|
- fasciculata
- reticularis |
|
|
|
Steroid hormones are derived from the precursor _____.
|
cholesterol
|
|
|
|
Which of the following are peptide hormones?
a. follicle-stimulating hormone b. oxytocin c. aldosteron d. insulin e. thyroid hormone |
a. follicle-stimulating hormone
b. oxytocin d. insulin |
|
|
|
The area of the brain called the _____ monitors conditions within and outside of the body. If necessary, it causes an appropriate change in the release of anterior pituitary hormones.
|
hypothalamus
|
|
|
|
Once a steroid or thyroid hormone binds to its receptor, the receptor-hormone complex associates with a target gene and controls gene:
|
transcription
|
|
|
|
The hormone that stimulates the secretion of thyroid hormone is ______.
|
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
|
|
|
|
Name the hormone that stimulates sperm production.
|
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
|
|
|
|
The pituitary hormone that stimulates the testes to secrete testosterone is ______ hormone.
|
luteinizing
|
|
|
|
Growth hormone (GH) is produced throughout your lifetime. During which period are its effects most evident?
|
childhood
|
|
|
|
True or false: Adrenal sex steroids have various developmental and reproductive functions.
|
True
(sex steroids, such as androgens and estrogens have various developmental and reproductive functions) |
|
|
|
______ is a potent glucocorticoid that stimulates fat and protein catabolism, gluconeogenesis, and release of fatty acids into the blood.
|
Cortisol
|
|
|
|
True or false: All hormones interact with their target cells by first binding to a membrane-bound receptor.
|
false
lipid-soluble (steroid) hormones diffuse through the membrane and interact directly with intercellular components |
|
|
|
The thick outer layer of the adrenal gland is called the adrenal ________.
|
cortex
|
|
|
|
Through a mechanism called enzyme ________ (or a cascade effect), one hormone molecule can trigger the synthesis of not just one enzyme molecule, but an enormous number.
|
amplification
|
|
|
|
The ovaries and testes are considered ______ because they secrete whole cells (egg and sperm)
|
exocrine
|
|
|
|
Monoamine hormones include catecholamines. List some examples.
|
- dopamine
- epinephrine - norepinephrine |
|
|
|
What do the ovaries, testes, and adrenal cortex have in common?
|
they all secrete steroid hormones
|
|
|
|
The hormone called _______ antagonizes the action of parathyroid hormone. It stimulates osteoblast activity, thus promoting calcium deposition and bone formation.
|
calcitonin
|
|
|
|
The thyroid hormone that is secreted in greatest quantity, with four iodine atoms, is called _______.
|
thyroxine (T4)
|
|
|
|
Thyroid follicular cells secrete:
|
thyroxine (T4)
|
|
|
|
The largest endocrine gland is the ______, which weighs about 25 grams.
|
thyroid
|
|
|
|
True or false: Hormones are released into a synaptic cleft.
|
false
hormones are released into the interstitial fluids; neurotransmitters (of the nervous system) are released into the synaptic cleft |
|
|
|
Cells and organs that have specific receptors for hormones are referred to as _____ cells and organs.
|
target
|
|
|
|
When peptides and catecholamines bind to the target cell, they stimulate its physiology indirectly using:
|
second messenger systems
|
|
|
|
Name the mechanisms by which cell-to-cell communication can be accomplished.
|
- gap junctions
- neurotransmitters - hormones - paracrines |
|
|
|
The condition of elevated blood glucose is called _______.
|
hyperglycemia
|
|
|
|
A condition that often presents with polydipsia, polyuria, and polyphagia is _____.
|
diabetes mellitus
|
|
|
|
The _______ gland is a site of maturation for T lymphocytes, cells that are critically important for immune defense.
|
thymus
|
|
|
|
The _____ gland is unique in that it is large in the fetus and infant, but is a small remnant in the elderly.
|
thymus
|
|
|
|
True or false: Hormones always function independently of other hormones.
|
false
(interactive effects of hormones include antagonistic, synergistic, and permissive interactions) |
|
|
|
In different tissues, a given hormone:
|
can use different second messengers
|
|
|
|
_______ syndrome, the hypersecretion of adrenal androgens, commonly accompanies Cushing's syndrome.
|
adrenogenital syndrome
|
|
|
|
Describe the location of the pancreas.
|
retroperitoneal and posterior to the greater curvature of the stomach
|
|
|
|
It is difficult for steroids and thyroid hormone to travel through the blood because they are _______.
|
hydrophobic
|
|
|
|
True or false: bound hormones can readily leave a blood capillary and get to a target cell.
|
false
only unbound (free) hormones can leave the blood capillary and get to a target cell; hydrophobic hormones bind to transport proteins as a means to get to their destination and prolong their half-life, but must be released before they can leave the blood |
|
|
|
The endocrine gland called the _______ is an elongated, spongy gland located below and behind the stomach, and is primarily an exocrine digestive gland.
|
pancreas
|
|
|
|
Name a hypoglycemic hormone (one that lowers blood glucose levels).
|
insulin
|
|
|
|
List several hyperglycemic (raises blood glucose levels) hormones.
|
- glucagon
- cortisol - epinephrine |
|
|
|
The spongy, elongated gland located below and behind the stomach is the ______.
|
pancreas
|
|
|
|
Describe the location of the adrenal medulla.
|
at the core of the adrenal gland; superior to the kidney
|
|
|
|
The catecholamine ______ is said to have a glucose-sparing effect because it inhibits the secretion of insulin. This effect promotes utilization of glucose by muscle and liver.
|
epinephrine
|
|
|
|
List the catecholamines secreted by the adrenal medulla.
|
- norepinephrine
- epinephrine - dopamine |
|
|
|
The hormone that suppresses FSH secretion by negative feedback is ______.
|
inhibin
|
|
|
|
The hormone that regulates the rate of sperm production by limiting FSH secretion is:
|
inhibin
|
|
|
|
Name the endocrine organ that is located in the scrotum.
|
testis
|
|
|
|
Name the hormone that is responsible for the development and general health of the male reproductive tract.
|
testosterone
|
|
|
|
Located between the seminiferous tubules are clusters of ______ cells. These cells are the source of testosterone and the other sex steroids.
|
interstitial
|
|
|
|
The pituitary stimulates another endocrine gland to secrete its hormone. Then, this second hormone signals the pituitary to inhibit further secretion of the initial pituitary hormone. This is an example of ______ feedback inhibition.
|
negative
|
|
|
|
True or false: Control of pituitary secretions is limited to feedback from target organs.
|
false
pituitary secretions are also controlled by other brain centers and the hypothalamus |
|
|
|
Glands that secrete their product into interstitial fluid or blood are called _______ glands.
|
endocrine
|
|
|
|
Immunity is suppressed by long-term exposure to the stress hormone ______.
|
cortisol
|
|
|
|
Oxytocin is produced in the paraventricular nucleus and antidiuretic hormone is produced in the supraoptic nucleus. Both nuclei are located in the:
|
hypothalamus
|
|
|
|
Name the two hormones that are stored and released by the posterior pituitary.
|
- anti-diuretic hormone
- oxytocin |
|
|
|
Describe the location of the pineal gland.
|
superior to the corpora quadrigemina
|
|
|
|
The endocrine gland called the ______ may play a role in establishing 24-hour circadian rhythms synchronized with light and dark.
|
pineal gland
|
|
|
|
The general adaptation syndrome involves elevation of hormones, including:
|
- epinephrine
- cortisol |
|
|
|
______ hypothyroidism is thyroid hyposecretion present from birth.
|
Congenital
|
|
|
|
List the symptoms of myxedema.
|
- edema
- weight gain - sluggish metabolism |
|
|
|
An increase in the size of the thyroid gland that results from excessive thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion is called:
|
goiter
|
|
|
|
In childbirth, the hormone _______ stimulates labor contractions. In lactating mothers, it stimulates the flow of milk from the mammary gland to the nipple (let-down).
|
oxytocin (OT)
|
|
|
|
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is also called arginine ______ because it can cause vasoconstriction at very high levels.
|
vasopressin
|
|
|
|
Some compounds are found as both neurotransmitters for the nervous system and hormones for the endocrine system. An example of such a compound is ______.
|
norepinephrine
|
|
|
|
A difference between the endocrine and the nervous system is that the nervous system is/has:
a. longer-lasting effects b. more targeted in its response c. more widespread effects d. slower to respond |
b. more targeted in its response
|
|
|
|
List the two main risk factors for type-2 diabetes mellitus.
|
- obesity
- sedentary lifestyle |
|
|
|
The majority of individuals diagnosed with diabetes have the condition called:
|
type 2 diabetes mellitus
|
|
|
|
Name the condition which is characterized by loss of 80% to 90% of the insulin-secreting pancreatic beta cells.
|
type 1 diabetes mellitus
|
|
|
|
The chemical class of hormones that are synthesized from cholesterol and differ mainly in the functional groups attached to the four-ringed backbone are classified as _______ hormones.
|
steroid
|
|
|
|
Target cells can become less sensitive to a hormone by decreasing the number of receptors in a process called:
|
down-regulation
|
|
|
|
The pituitary hormone that functions to reduce urine volume and increase blood volume is:
|
antidiuretic hormone
|
|
|
|
Describe the funciton of antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
|
it increases water retention by the kidneys
|
|
|
|
The hypothalamus often exerts its action on the pituitary gland by way of hormones called _____ hormones.
|
releasing
|
|
|
|
Describe the function of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
|
ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids
|
|
|
|
The primary effect of thyroid hormone is to _____ the body's metabolic rate.
|
increase
|
|
|
|
The condition which requires insulin injections or insulin infusions to maintain blood glucose levels in a range compatible with life is called:
|
type 1 diabetes mellitus
|
|
|
|
The reaction to stress is mediated mainly by:
|
both the endocrine system and the sympathetic nervous system
|
|
|
|
List, in order of occurrence, the stages of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS).
|
- alarm reaction
- stage of resistance - stage of exhaustion |
|
|
|
______ is the hormone that is secreted by the kidneys and liver in response to hypoxemia. It's function is to stimulate red blood cell production.
|
erythropoietin
|
|
|
|
Adipose tissue secretes the hormone _____ which serves as a signal for the onset of puberty.
|
leptin
|
|
|
|
In addition to providing fetal nutrition and wast removal, estrogen from the ______ inhibits the mammary glands from responding to prolactin; thus milk is not secreted until birth.
|
placenta
|
|
|
|
Aldosterone stimulates the kidneys to retain _____ and excrete _____.
|
- sodium (and water)
- potassium to maintain blood pressure and volume; origin is adrenal cortex |
|
|
|
In both sexes, the group of adrenal cortical hormones called ______ induce the growth of pubic and axillary hair and their associated apocrine scent glands at puberty and stimulate the libido throughout adolescent and adult life.
|
androgens
|
|
|
|
Describe a hormone receptor.
|
a specific protein or glycoprotein embedded in the plasma membrane
|
|
|
|
Define saturation, with respect to hormones.
|
saturation means that ll of the receptor molecules have bound hormone molecules
|
|
|
|
Inadequate hormone release is referred to as ________.
|
hyposecretion
|
|
|
|
Parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland secrete ______ in response to rising blood calcium.
|
calcitonin
|
|
|
|
The more abundant hormone secreted by the thyroid gland is:
|
thyroxine (T4)
|
|
|
|
The two lobes of the thyroid gland are joined by a narrow anterior bridge of tissue called the ______.
|
isthmus
|
|
|
|
During the stage of exhaustion, the body relies on _____ breakdown to meet its energy needs.
|
protein
|
|
|
|
The growth of pubic and axillary hair during puberty is associated with the group of adrenal cortical hormones called _______.
|
androgens
|
|
|
|
The adrenal cortex is composed of ____ layers of tissue which differ in their histology and hormone output.
|
3
- zona glomerulosa - zona fasciculata - zona reticularis |
|
|
|
Pancreatic beta cells secrete _____ during and immediately following a meal.
|
insulin
|
|
|
|
The pancreatic hormone that inhibits some digestive enzyme secretion and nutrient absorption is __________.
|
somatostatin
|
|
|
|
How do thromboxanes function?
|
they stimulate vasoconstriction and clotting
|
|
|
|
True or false: In general, the actions of the PGF family of prostaglandins complement the actions of the PGE family of prostaglandins.
|
false
|
|
|
|
The ______ gland secretes several hormones that stimulate the development of lymphatic organs and regulate the development and activity of T cells.
|
thymus
|
|
|
|
Hyposecretion of growth hormone (GH_ in childhood results in _______. Hypersecretion of GH before adolescence results in _______.
|
- pituitary dwarfism
- gigantism |
|
|
|
Acromegaly is characterized by:
|
thickening of the bones and soft tissues
|
|
|
|
The ______ glands secrete PTH in response to hypocalcemia, which then raises blood calcium levels.
|
parathyroid
|
|
|
|
Somatostatin is secreted by ____ cells of the pancreas.
|
delta cells (D cells)
|
|
|
|
The _____ glands are ovoid glands partially embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid.
|
parathyroid
|
|
|
|
Describe the location of the parathyroid glands.
|
embedded in the (posterior) thyroid gland
|
|
|
|
Once arachidonic acid is liberated from the plasma membrane, it is converted by cyclooxygenase to three eicosanoids:
|
- prostaglandins
- prostacyclin - thromboxanes |
|
|
|
The ______ acts as both an endocrine gland and as a ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system.
|
adrenal medulla
|
|
|
|
List the two organs that take up and degrade secreted hormones.
|
- liver
- kidneys |
|
|
|
The nervous system is similar to the endocrine system in that both work through chemical messengers to affect physiological responses. However, the nervous system is ______ in its response.
|
faster
|
|
|
|
The major androgen secreted by the adrenal cortex, _______, has little biological activity of its own, but is converted to more potent forms at the tissue level.
|
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
|
|
|
|
The most prevalent metabolic disease in the world is:
|
diabetes mellitus
|
|
|
|
Steroid hormones and thyroid hormone are ____ and must bind to hydrophilic transport proteins to get to their destination.
|
hydrophobic
|
|
|
|
Name the stage of the general adaptation syndrome that can lead rapidly to death.
|
- stage of exhaustion
|
|
|
|
The phase of the general adaptation syndrome that is dominated by cortisol is:
|
- stage of resistance
|
|
|
|
Propioomelanocortin is processed within the pituitary to yield ______, which are chemicals that block pain perception.
|
endorphins
|
|
|
|
Growth hormone boosts the process of ______ of DNA, and thus the production of mRNA.
|
transcription
|
|
|
|
Within the kidney, growth hormone promotes the retention of:
|
- sodium
- chloride - potassium |
|
|
|
The term ______ refers to the rate at which hormones are cleared from the blood.
|
metabolic clearance rate
|
|
|
|
Endocrine glands often have permeable capillaries designed to pick up and carry away hormones. These vessels are a type of capillary called ______ capillaries.
|
fenestrated
|
|
|
|
Name the hormone that stimulates cells to absorb glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
|
insulin
|
|
|
|
List the substances secreted by pancreatic islet cells.
|
- insulin
- glucagon - somatostatin |
|
|
|
When blood nutrients increase, insulin is secreted from the _____ cells of the pancreas to help the transport of nutrients into cells.
|
beta
|
|
|
|
ACTH
- full name? - source? |
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin)
- anterior pituitary |
|
|
|
ADH
- full name? - source? |
- Antidiuretic hormone (arginine vasopressin)
- posterior pituitary |
|
|
|
ANP
- full name? - source? |
- Atrial natriuretic peptide
- heart |
|
|
|
CRH
- full name? - source? |
- Corticotropin releasing hormone
- hypothalamus |
|
|
|
DHEA
- full name? - source? |
- Dehydroepiandrosterone
- adrenal cortex |
|
|
|
EPO
- full name? - source? |
- Erythropoietin
- kidney and liver |
|
|
|
FSH
- full name? - source? |
- Follicle-stimulating hormone
- anterior pituitary |
|
|
|
GH
- full name? - source? |
- Growth hormone (somatotropin)
- anterior pituitary |
|
|
|
GHRH
- full name? - source? |
- Growth hormone-releasing hormone
- hypothalamus |
|
|
|
GnRH
- full name? - source? |
- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
- hypothalamus |
|
|
|
IGFs
- full name? - source? |
- Insulin-like growth factors (somatomedins)
- liver, other tissues |
|
|
|
LH
- full name? - source? |
- Luteinizing hormone
- anterior pituitary |
|
|
|
NE
- full name? - source? |
- Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
- adrenal medulla |
|
|
|
OT
- full name? - source? |
- Oxytocin
- posterior pituitary |
|
|
|
PIH
- full name? - source? |
- Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (dopamine)
- hypothalamus |
|
|
|
PRL
- full name? - source? |
- Prolactin
- anterior pituitary |
|
|
|
PTH
- full name? - source? |
- Parathyroid hormone (parathormone)
- parathyroid glands |
|
|
|
T₃
- full name? - source? |
- Triiodothyronine
- thyroid |
|
|
|
T₄
- full name? - source? |
- Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine)
- thyroid |
|
|
|
TH
- full name? - source? |
- Thyroid hormone (T₃ and T₄)
- thyroid |
|
|
|
TRH
- full name? - source? |
- Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
- hypothalamus |
|
|
|
TSH
- full name? - source? |
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone
- anterior pituitary |
|
|
|
Name the hormones released by the hypothalamus.
|
- Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
- Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) - Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) - Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) - Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) - Somatostatin |
|
|
|
Name the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis).
|
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (a.k.a. corticotropin)
- Growth hormone (GH) - Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - Luteinizing hormone (LH) - Prolactin (PRL) |
|
|
|
Name the hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis).
|
- Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- Oxytocin (OT) |
|
|
|
What is the purpose of TRH?
|
promotes secretion of:
- TSH and - PRL |
|
|
|
What is the purpose of CRH?
|
promotes secretion of ACTH
|
|
|
|
What is the purpose of GnRH?
|
promotes secretion of:
- FSH - LH |
|
|
|
What is the purpose of GHRH?
|
promotes secretion of GH
|
|
|
|
What is the purpose of PIH?
|
inhibits the secretion of PRL
|
|
|
|
What is the purpose of somatostatin?
|
inhibits secretion of:
- GH and - TSH |
|
|
|
FSH
- target organ/tissue? - principal effects? |
- ovaries/testes
- female: growth of ovarian follicles and secretion of estrogen - male - sperm production (Per his lecture, "makes gametes" is good enough.) |
|
|
|
LH
- target organ/tissue? - principal effects? |
- ovaries/testes
- female: ovulation, maintenance of corpus luteum - male: testosterone secretion (Per his lecture, "production of sex hormones" is good enough.) |
|
|
|
TSH
- target organ/tissue? - principal effects? |
- thyroid gland
- growth of thyroid and secretion of thyroid hormone (TH = T₃ and T₄) |
|
|
|
ACTH
- target organ/tissue? - principal effects? |
- adrenal cortex
- growth of adrenal cortex and secretion of glucocorticoids |
|
|
|
PRL
- target organ/tissue? - principal effects? |
- mammary glands; testes
- female: milk synthesis - male: increased LH sensitivity |
|
|
|
GH
- target organ/tissue? - principal effects? |
- liver, muscle, fat, bone, cartilage
- widespread tissue growth, especially in the above tissues |
|
|
|
ADH
- target organ/tissue? - principal effects? |
- kidneys
- water retention |
|
|
|
OT
- target organ/tissue? - principal effects? |
- uterus, mammary glands
- labor contractions, milk release (letdown); possibly involved in ejaculation, sperm transport, sexual affection and mother-infant bonding |
|
|
|
Layers of the adrenal cortex
|
- zona glomerulosa (mineralocorticoids)
- zona fasciculata (glucocorticoids and androgens/sex steroids) - zona reticularis (glucocorticoids and androgens/sex steroids) |
|
|
|
Purpose of mineralocorticoids
|
regulate body's electrolyte balance (e.g., aldosterone - stimulates kidneys to retain sodium and excrete potassium; via osmosis, so helps maintain blood volume and pressure)
|
|
|
|
Purpose of glucocorticoids
|
regulate the metabolism of glucose and other organic fuels (e.g., cortisol/hydrocortisone - secreted in response to ACTH to stimulate fat and protein catabolism, gluconeogenesis and release of fatty acids and glucose into the blood; helps adapt to stress and repair damaged tissues, anti-inflammatory effect)
|
|
|
|
Purpose of androgens
|
various developmental and reproductive functions (e.g., DHEA, which is converted by many tissues into testosterone and dihydrotestosterone)
- induce growth of pubic and axillary hair and apocrine glands and stimulate libido - estradiol is the main adrenal estrogen, but quantity produced is small compared with that from ovaries (pre-menopausally) |
|
|
|
Monamine hormones and neurotransmitters are derived from:
a. fatty acids b. carbohydrates c. nucleic acids d. amino acids |
d. amino acids
|
|
|
|
Theca and granulosa cells of the ovarian follicle produce estrogen while the corpus luteum produces the hormone _______.
|
progesterone
|
|
|
|
The hormone called _______ ______ hormone stimulates the secretion of ovarian sex hormones and the development of the ovarian follicles.
|
follicle stimulating (FSH)
|
|
|
|
The hormone _____ stimulates mitosis and cellular differentiation and thus promotes tissue growth throughout the body.
a. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) b. thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) c. thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) d. growth hormone (GH) |
d. growth hormone (GH)
|
|
|
|
Name the target organ for adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
|
adrenal cortex
|
|
|
|
Name the pituitary hormone that stimulates ovulation.
|
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
|
|
|
|
List the expected urinalysis results of an untreated diabetic.
a. glycosuria b. hematuria c. ketonuria d. oligouria |
a. glycosuria
c. ketonuria |
|
|
|
A condition defined as a disruption of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism resulting from hyposecretion or inaction of insulin is _______ ______.
|
diabetes mellitus
|
|
|
|
Name the endocrine gland that stores and releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone.
|
posterior pituitary
neurohypophysis |
|
|
|
Hypothalamic releasing hormones stimulate the ______ gland to release its hormones.
|
pituitary
|
|
|
|
When cells cannot absorb glucose, as occurs in diabetes mellitus, they metabolize which of the following:
a. protein b. bone c. glycogen d. fat |
a. protein
d. fat |
|
|
|
The protein angiotensinogen, the precursor protein of the active hormone angiotensin II, is produced by the ______.
|
liver
|
|
|
|
Steroid hormones enter the target cell nucleus and act directly on the _____, changing target cell physiology by either activating or inhibiting transcription.
|
genes
|
|
|
|
Steroid hormones diffuse through the phospholipid regions of the target cell membrane and into the _____, where they bind to a receptor.
a. endoplasmic reticulum b. golgi complex c. nucleus d. cytoskeleton |
c. nucleus
|
|
|
|
Describe the effect of growth hormone.
a. GH production begins at puberty b. GH affects mitotic rates only in the epiphyseal regions of the bones c. GH functions as a releasing hormone for the thymus d. GH has widespread effects in many areas of the body |
d. GH has widespread effects in many areas of the body
|
|
|
|
The role of insulin-like growth factors, or somatomedins, is to prolong:
a. negative feedback of GH b. the release of somatostatin c. the action of growth hormone |
c. the action of growth hormone
|
|
|
|
After synthesis in the skin, ______ is converted in the liver and then sent to the kidneys to be converted to calcitriol.
|
cholecalciferol
|
|
|
|
The kidneys secrete the hormones ______ and ______.
a. calcitriol b. leptin c. erythropoietin d. aldosterone |
a. calcitriol
c. erythropoietin |
|
|
|
Atrial natriuretic peptide and brain natriuretic peptide increase excretion of sodium, leading to a(n) ______ in blood pressure.
|
decrease
|
|
|
|
_______ is the hormone that is secreted by the kidneys and liver in response to hypoxemia. Its function is to stimulate red blood cell production.
|
erythropoietin
|
|
|
|
In addition to the ovary, list another organ that secretes progesterone and estrogen.
a. thyroid b. placenta c. thymus d. heart |
b. placenta
|
|
|
|
List the three types of interactive effects hormones can have on their target organs.
|
- synergistic
- antagonistic - permissive |
|
|
|
Estrogen stimulates the up-regulation of progesterone receptors in the uterus to prime the uterus to respond to progesterone. This is called a _______ effect.
|
permissive
|
|
|
|
During the postmenopausal period, estrogen is formed form the adrenal cortical hormones called ______.
|
androgens
|
|
|
|
The hormone produced by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal gland that helps maintain blood pressure and blood volume is:
|
aldosterone
|
|
|
|
The groups of hormones from the adrenal cortex called _____ ______ have various developmental and reproductive functions.
|
sex steroids
|
|
|
|
The thin layer of the adrenal cortex just beneath the capsule is the zona ______. It produces mineralocorticoids.
|
glomerulosa
|
|
|
|
The thick middle layer of the adrenal cortex is the zona ______.
|
fasciculata
|
|
|
|
Weak adrenal cortical androgens which possess little biological activity are converted to the much more potent androgen called ________.
|
testosterone
|
|
|
|
The adrenal ______ is yellow in color due to its high lipid content. It produces steroid hormones from cholesterol.
|
cortex
|
|
|
|
The action of the catecholamines is to:
a. increase alertness and prepare the body for physical activity b. decrease alertness and induce sleep c. slow the heart rate, decrease blood pressure, and raise metabolic rate |
a. increase alertness and prepare the body for physical activity
|
|
|
|
The adrenal medulla has an endocrine function. It also acts as part of the ______ system.
|
nervous
(specifically, sympathetic nervous system) |
|
|
|
Secretions from ______ glands have intracellular effects and they alter the metabolism of their target cells.
|
endocrine
|
|
|
|
The endocrine gland called the _____ is an elongated, spongy gland located below and behind the stomach, and is primarily an exocrine digestive gland.
|
pancreas
|
|
|
|
When blood nutrients increase, insulin is secreted from the _____ cells of the pancreas to help the transport of nutrients into cells.
|
beta
|
|
|
|
List several hyperglycemic hormones.
|
- glucagon
- cortisol - epinephrine |
|
|
|
The condition called ______ ______ sometimes results in development of a "buffalo hump" and moon face.
|
Cushing syndrome
|
|
|
|
________ syndrome, the hypersecretion of adrenal androgens, commonly accompanies Cushing's syndrome.
|
Adrenogenital
|
|
|
|
A neonatologist suspects that a newborn's thyroid is underperforming. What might the diagnosis be?
|
congenital hypothyroidism
|
|
|
|
Glands that secrete their product into interstitial fluid or blood are called ______ glands.
|
endocrine
|
|
|
|
Describe the function of a hyperglycemic hormone.
|
increases blood glucose concentration
|
|
|
|
The hormone _______ antagonizes the effects of glucagon by suppressing the breakdown of glycogen.
|
insulin
|
|
|
|
Name the glands that secrete steroid hormones.
|
- ovaries
- testes - adrenal cortex |
|
