Biol 2401 - Fundamentals Of Anatomy & Physiology - Martini Book And Biduaka Lecture - Final Exam

Front 1

What two systems are involved in maintaining homeostasis?

Back 1

nervous system

endocrine system

Front 2

The endocrine system is a system made of several endocrine glands, which are involved in

Back 2

the secretion of various chemical messengers called hormones.

Front 3

How are endocrine glands different from exocrine glands?

Back 3

Unlike exocrine glands, endocrine glands are ductless glands which dump their secretory products (hormones) to the bloodstream via the extracellular fluid.

Front 4

Hormones exert their effects on

Back 4

target cells (meaning cells that have their appropriate receptors).

Front 5

The endocrine system performs four vital functions:

Back 5

1. Maintenance of homeostasis
2. Maintenance of sound metabolism (anabolism/catabolism balance)
3. Promotes growth and development
4. Regulates reproductive functions

Front 6

Four classes of hormones

Back 6

- amino-acid based hormones
- peptide-based hormones
- protein-based hormones
- steroid-based hormones

Front 7

Amino acid-based hormones

Back 7

derived from modified amino acids
a. adrenalin,
b. noradrenalin
c. thyroxine (T4)
d. triiodothyronine (T3)

Front 8

Peptide-based hormones

Back 8

have less than 100 amino acids
a. oxcytocin,
b. antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
c. GNRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)
d. insulin
e. CRH

Front 9

Protein-based hormones

Back 9

a. prolactin (PRL)
b. human growth hormone (HGH)
c. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
d. luteinizing hormone

Front 10

Steroid-based hormones

Back 10

- estrogen
- progesterone
- aldosterone
- testosterone

Front 11

Hypothalamus description and hormones

Back 11

one of the regions of the diencephalon which plays a major role in bodily functions; it produces several hormones:

a. GNRH: (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone) which stimulates the pituitary gland (hypophysis) to produce FSH and LH.

b. TSH: (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) which acts on the thyroid gland and makes it secrete T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine)

c. CRH: (Corticotropin releasing hormone) which stimulates the pituitary gland and enables it to produce ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone).
ACTH in turn, stimulates the adrenal gland to produce glucocorticoids.

d. TRH: (Thyroid releasing hormone) which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce T4 and T3.

e. Oxytocin: stimulates uterine muscle contractions and milk let down.

Front 12

Pituitary gland description and hormones

Back 12

(also called hypophysis) secretes several hormones:

a. HGH: (Human Growth Hormone) promotes musculo-skeletal growth, wound healing, protein synthesis. lipolysis

b. ACTH: (adrenocorticotropic hormone) Acts on the adrenal glands and makes them secrete Glucocorticoid (e.g. Cortisol)

c. TSH: (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) Acts on the thyroid gland and makes it secrete T4 (thyroxin) and T3 (triiodothyronine); regulates cellular metabolism and production of ATP

d. PRL: (Prolactin) Stimulates milk production.

e. FSH: (Follicle stimulating hormone)
i. In the female FSH promotes follicular growth
ii. In the male: FSH stimulates spermatogenesis (sperm production) in the testicles.

f. LH: (Luteinizing hormone)
i. In the female: LH induces ovulation (release of the egg from the follicle).
ii. In the male: LH acts on the Leydig cells (interstitial cells) of the testicles and enables them to secrete testosterone.

g. Oxytocin: Is produced by the hypothalamus but it is stored in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It induces labor and milk let down.

Front 13

Pineal gland (corpus cerebri) description and hormones

Back 13

Produces melatonin which regulates the biological clock.

Front 14

Thyroid gland description and hormones

Back 14

Produces three main hormones:

a. Calcitonin: Lowers calcium in the blood, thus produces hypocalcemia (builds up bones)
b. Thyroxine: stimulates body basal metabolism.
c. Triiodothyronine: stimulates body basal metabolism.

Front 15

Parathyroid glands description and hormones

Back 15

Produces parathyroid hormone (PTH) which increases the amount of calcium in the blood, thus produces hypercalcemia (tears down bones)

Front 16

Thymus gland description and hormones

Back 16

Produces thymosine which stimulates the development of lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, peyer’s patches during embryological development.

Front 17

Adrenal glands are divided into what two regions?

Back 17

adrenal medulla

adrenal cortex

Front 18

Adrenal medulla hormones

Back 18

Adrenal Medulla: Produces 2 hormones
i. Adrenalin (epinephrine): Increases heart rate, vasoconstriction, and also induces hyperglycemia.
ii. Noradrenalin (norepinephrine): Increases heart rate, vasoconstriction, and also induces hyperglycemia. * (fight or flight)

Front 19

Adrenal cortex hormones

Back 19

i. Glucocorticoids: such as cortisol; promote normal metabolism, stress resistance, anti-inflammatory, also increases glucose in the blood
ii. Sex hormones which stimulate libido. Stimulates onset of puberty in the female.
iii. Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone which increases sodium absorption and potassium excretion.

Front 20

Pancreas hormones

Back 20

a. Insulin: produced by the beta cells of the Isle of Langerhans to lower blood glucose; makes the liver promote glycogenesis (glycogen synthesis)
b. Glucagon: increases blood sugar; induces glycogenolysis (breaks down glycogen into glucose).
c. Somastatin: inhibits insulin and glucagon.

Front 21

Hormones of testicles

Back 21

Produce androgens:

a. Testosterone - stimulates sex drive
b. Dehydrotestosterone - the development of male secondary sex characteristics (beard, hairy torso, pubic hairs, big skeletal muscular development, smelly armpits)
c. Androgen Binding Protein (ABP): binds testosterone and influences spermatogenesis

Front 22

Hormones of ovaries

Back 22

a. Estrogen: regulates menstrual cycle and stimulates female secondary characteristics (breast development, wide pelvic region, high pitched voice, less hair on body, smoother integumentary system).
b. Progesterone: maintains pregnancy.
Note, progesterone inhibits GNRH during pregnancy, thus allowing a lady to have sexual intercourse without having to worry about getting pregnant during an existing pregnancy. Progesterone and estrogen are the main substances that are used in the combination birth control pill.
c. Inhibin: inhibit hypothalamus to release GNRH.
d. Relaxin: Increase the flexibility of the symphysis pubis during pregnancy, soften the cervix and dilates the birth canal during delivery.

Front 23

Endocrine glands are glands of internal secretion because

Back 23

they secrete their products (hormones) into the blood or interstitial spaces

they do not have ducts that open into cavities or onto surfaces

Front 24

Exocrine glands secrete their products

Back 24

into ducts

Front 25

A hormone is a

Back 25

chemical messenger released into the blood to be transported in
a convenient way throughout the body

Front 26

List the endocrine glands

Back 26

1.) Pituitary (hypophysis)
2.) Thyroid
3.) Parathyroids
4.) Adrenals (suprarenals)
5.) Pineal (epiphysis cerebri)
6.) Thymus

Front 27

List the exocrine and endocrine glands

Back 27

1.) Pancreas
2.) Ovaries
3.) Testes
4.) Kidneys
5.) Stomach
6.) Liver
7.) Small intestine
8.) Skin
9.) Heart
10.) Placenta

Front 28

Nervous system controls homeostasis through

Back 28

nerve impulses conducted
along axons, either exciting or inhibiting muscle fibers or glands.

Front 29

How does the nervous system control homeostasis through nerve impulses?

Back 29

a. Nervous system causes muscles to contract and glands to secrete either
more or less of their product.
b. Nerve impulses produce their effects within a few milliseconds.
c. Effects of nervous system are brief.

Front 30

Endocrine system releases

Back 30

hormones into the bloodstream that affect cells throughout the body

Front 31

How does the endocrine system affect the body?

Back 31

a. Endocrine system alters metabolic activities, regulates growth and
development, and guides reproductive processes.
b. Regulates the activities of smooth and cardiac muscle and some glands.
c. Hormones act within seconds and others take several hours.
d. Hormone effect is widespread and protracted.

Front 32

Neuroendocrine system is

Back 32

represented by both nervous and endocrine systems.

Front 33

Approximately how many hormones affect cells?

Back 33

50

Front 34

What are hormone target cells and receptors?

Back 34

a. Target cells are specific cells affected by hormones.

b. Receptors are the large protein or glycoprotein molecules to which hormones bind.

Front 35

Characteristics of steroid hormones

Back 35

a.) Derived from cholesterol.
b.) The shape of each steroid hormone account
for diversity of function.
c.) Endocrine tissues that secrete steroid hormones all are derived from the mesoderm.
d.) testosterone, aldosterone, estrogen, progesterone

Front 36

Characteristics of amines (amino acids)

Back 36

a.) Several are synthesized by modifying the amino acid tyrosine (e.g., thyroid hormones T3 and T4,) and catecholamines (e.g., epinephrine and norepinephrine from adrenal glands)

b.) Histamine is synthesized from the amino acid histidine by mast cells and platelets

c.) Serotonin and melatonin derive from tryptophan.

d.) also adrenaline and noradrenaline

Front 37

Characteristics of peptides and proteins

Back 37

a.) Glycoproteins like thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

b.) Chains of amino acids from 3 to 200

c.) Peptide and protein hormones are synthesized on rough endoplasmic reticulum.

d.) ADH, oxytocin, GNRH, CRH, insulin

Front 38

Characteristics of eicosanoids

Back 38

a.) Mostly discovered group of mediators.
b.) Two major types are prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
c.) Derived form fatty acids called arachidonic acid.
d.) Can be either local or circulating hormones.

Front 39

Types of effects of hormone interaction

Back 39

- permissive effect
- synergistic effect
- antagonistic effect

Front 40

Permissive effect of hormone interaction

Back 40

occurs when the effect of one hormone on a target cell requires a previous or simultaneous exposure to another hormone. (e.g., an increase in estrogens can bring about an increase in the number of progesterone receptors which gives a greater effect)

Front 41

Synergistic effect of hormone interaction

Back 41

occurs when two or more hormones complement each other's actions and both are needed for full expression of the hormone effects. (e.g., the production, secretion and ejection of milk by the mammary glands require the synergistic effects of estrogens, progesterone, prolactin, and oxytocin.

Front 42

Antagonistic effect of hormone interaction

Back 42

the effect of one hormone on a target cell is opposed by another hormone. (e.g., insulin lowers blood sugar level and glucagon raises it)

Front 43

How are hormone secretions by endocrine glands stimulated or inhibited?

Back 43

a. Signals from the nervous system
b. Chemical changes in the blood
c. Chemical changes in other hormones
d. Negative feedback and sometimes positive feedback maintain homeostasis of hormonal secretions.

Front 44

Which gland is normally called the "master" endocrine gland? Why?

Back 44

pituitary

because it secretes hormones that control other endocrine glands

Front 45

Which gland is the true "master" gland? Why?

Back 45

hypothalamus

a. because it is the integrating link between the nervous and the endocrine system.
b. It receives input from several other regions of brain like limbic system, cerebral cortex, thalamus, and reticular activating system

Front 46

Another name for
- pituitary
- anterior pituitary
- posterior pituitary

Back 46

- hypophysis
- adenohypophysis
- neurohypophysis

Front 47

Tropins or tropic hormones are hormones that

Back 47

influence another endocrine gland

Front 48

Five types of anterior pituitary cells

Back 48

- somatotrophs
- lactotrophs
- corticotrophs
- thyrotrophs
- gonadotrophs

Front 49

What do the somatotrophs (anterior pituitary cells) do?

Back 49

produce human growth hormone (HGH) which stimulates general body growth and regulates aspects of metabolism

Front 50

What do lactotrophs (anterior pituitary cells) do?

Back 50

synthesize prolactin (PRL) which initiates milk production in suitably prepared mammary glands.

Front 51

What do corticotrophs (anterior pituitary cells) do?

Back 51

synthesize
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which
stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete
glucocorticoids. Also melanocytestimulating
hormone (MSH) affects skin
pigmentation

Front 52

What do thyrotrophs (anterior pituitary cells) do?

Back 52

produce thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH) which controls the thyroid
gland secretions and other activities

Front 53

What do gonadotrophs (anterior pituitary cells) do?

Back 53

produce two major hormones:
(1.) follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) which stimulates maturation of ova and secretion of estrogen by the ovaries and production of sperm in the testes

(2.) Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates other sexual and reproductive activities

Front 54

Explain diabetogenic effect of HGH

Back 54

- causes hyperglycemia that may overwork pancreatic beta cells

- pancreas burns out and may cause diabetes mellitus

Front 55

Differentiate gigantism and acromegaly

Back 55

both are caused by hypersecretion of HGH, however:
- gigantism is in childhood and the long bones increase in length
- acromegaly is in adulthood (after the growth plates have fused) and since the long bones cannot extend, the remaining bones grow abnormally

Front 56

Function of the posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)

Back 56

it does not synthesize hormones, but does store and release oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH/vasopressin)

Front 57

Which is the only endocrine gland that stores its secretory product in large quantity (about a 100-day supply)?

Back 57

the thyroid gland

Front 58

Diseases of thyroid dysfunction

Back 58

- cretinism - hypo in children
- myxedema - hypo in adults
- Grave's - hyper

Front 59

Hormones that regulate bone homeostasis

Back 59

- calcitonin (thyroid) - builds
- PTH (parathyroid) - breaks down
- calcitriol (active form of vitamin D)

Front 60

Disease of parathyroid dysfunction

Back 60

tetany caused by hypoparathyroidism

Front 61

Diseases of adrenal dysfunction

Back 61

Addison's - hypoadrenalism

Cushing's - hyperadrenalism

Front 62

Pancreas characteristics

Back 62

- both endocrine and exocrine gland

Islets of Langerhans are clusters of endocrine tissue in the pancreas.

1.) Alpha cells secrete the hormone glucagon which raises blood sugar level.
2.) Beta cells secrete the hormone insulin which lowers blood sugar level
3.) somastatin inhibits insulin and glucagon

Front 63

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

Back 63

seasonal depression that occurs in the winter months when daylight is shorter and there is possible overproduction of melatonin

Front 64

What do the ciliary body/processes do?

Back 64

release aqueous humor

Front 65

What do the ciliary muscles do?

Back 65

focus the lens

Front 66

Where are most of the cones in the eye located?

Back 66

fovea centralis

Front 67

Nearsighted

Back 67

myopic (image focuses in front of retina)

Front 68

Hyperopia

Back 68

farsighted (image focuses behind retina

Front 69

Presbyopia

Back 69

- loss of vision with aging
- lens begins to lose its elasticity and ability to accommodate
- a form of hyperopia

Front 70

Astigmatism

Back 70

lens is misshapen

Front 71

emmetropia

Back 71

normal vision

Front 72

scotomas

Back 72

abnormal blind spot

Front 73

cataract

Back 73

lens loses transparency

Front 74

night blindness

Back 74

dim light fails to activate the rods

Front 75

color blindness

Back 75

one or more categories of cones does not function properly

Front 76

Basic functional cell of the nervous system?

Back 76

neuron

Front 77

PNS allows the brain and spinal cord

Back 77

to communicate with the rest of the body

Front 78

Autonomic nervous system =

Back 78

visceral nervous system

Front 79

Characteristics of neurons
- respond to stimuli
- conduct impulses

Back 79

excitability

conductivity

Front 80

The CNS is comprised of

Back 80

the brain and spinal cord

Front 81

What is the center of reflex action?

Back 81

the spinal cord

Front 82

Somatic vs. autonomic nervous systems

Back 82

- control skeletal muscle (voluntary)

- visceral (involuntary)

Front 83

Sympathetic vs. parasympathetic nervous systems

Back 83

- fight or flight (maintenance of homeostasis)

- rest and digest (sex, salivation, lacrimation,, digestion, urination, defecation)

Front 84

Neuroglial cells

Back 84

support and protect the nervous system
- astrocytes (most numerous; xfer materials to/from circulation)
- oligodendrocytes (myelin of CNS)
- ependymal cells (line ventricles, cells of choroid plexus)
- microglia (phagocytic)

Front 85

Running is aerobic and makes use of the _____ cycle.

Back 85

Krebs

Front 86

Neurotransmitters are comprised of

Back 86

amino acids (proteins)

Front 87

What do Nissl bodies do?

Back 87

RER; contain RNA and protein and function in protein synthesis

Front 88

Do axons contain Nissl bodies?

Back 88

no

Front 89

What 2 cells produce myelin in
CNS?
PNS?

Back 89

oligodendrocytes

Schwann cells

Front 90

EPSP
IPSP

Back 90

excitatory post-synaptic potential
(nerve is excited)

inhibitory post-synaptic potential
(nerve is inhibited)

Front 91

EPSPs make it easier for the neuron to

Back 91

fire an action potential

the IPSPs have the opposite effect

Front 92

How do neurotransmitters depart the synapse?

Back 92

they are
- uptaken
- destroyed by enzymes
- dispersed into intracellular space

Front 93

Dopamine functions

Back 93

- make you happy, pleasured
- addictive
- skeletal muscle contraction
- increase muscle tone

Front 94

Seratonin functions

Back 94

- increase appetite
- then makes you sleepy
- calms you down

Front 95

Norepinephrine functions

Back 95

- increase heart rate
- open airways

Front 96

What does an interneuron do?

Back 96

connects sensory and motor neurons

Front 97

Types of neurons
- multipolar
- bipolar
- unipolar

Back 97

- several dendrites, one axon (most common; motor neurons)

- one dendrite, one axon (special senses)

- one continuous dendrite and axon coming off cell body (usually sensory)

Front 98

Exteroceptors
interoceptors
proprioceptors

Back 98

- info about external environment
- info about internal environment
- information about position and movement

Front 99

What is saltatory conduction?

Back 99

jumping from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier

increases conduction velocity without having to increase diameter of axon

Front 100

Polarization

Depolarization

Back 100

K+ highly concentrated inside cell and Na+ concentrated outside (resting state of cell)

stimulation of nerve cell; above ions reverse

Front 101

Refractory period

Back 101

time when no amount of stimulus will induce a response

Front 102

All or none response

Back 102

if stimulus is strong enough to initiate an action potential, the impulse will travel along a neuron until its transmission is complete

Front 103

What is a ganglion?

Back 103

a collection of neuronal cell bodies located in the PNS

Front 104

Where does the spinal cord of an adult stop? A child's?

Back 104

L1-L2

L3-L4

Front 105

How many sets of cranial nerves? Spinal nerves?

Back 105

12

31

Front 106

Collections of neuron cell bodies are called

Back 106

- ganglion in PNS

- nucleus in CNS

Front 107

Where is CSF found?

Back 107

in subarachnoid space
in ventricles of brain
in central canal

Front 108

What is proprioception?

Back 108

awareness of limbs and positioning without seeing

Front 109

Order of coverings (inner to outer)

Back 109

- endo (mysium/neurium; one cell)
- peri (fascicles)
- epi (whole thing)

Front 110

Nerves for extremities
- upper
- lower

Back 110

- C4-T1

- T9-L1

Front 111

What produces CSF?

Back 111

choroid plexus

Front 112

Frontal lobe

Back 112

MOTOR CORTEX
- memory
- emotion
- speaking
- voluntary motor control of skeletal muscle
- personality
- calculation

Front 113

Parietal lobe

Back 113

SENSORY CORTEX
- understanding speech
- interpreting texture and shape
- light touch
- pain
- pressure

Front 114

Temporal lobe

Back 114

- auditory sensation
- stores memory of auditory and visual events
- aids in understanding language

Front 115

Occipital lobe

Back 115

- associated with vision
- recognizing what we see

Front 116

Limbic system

Back 116

EMOTIONAL BRAIN

group of fiber tracts contained in the cerebral hemispheres that is involved in basic emotional responses such as fear, anger, joy, grief, sex and hunger

Front 117

What gland controls and regulates the autonomic nervous system?

Back 117

hypothalamus

cardiac/smooth contraction
rage and aggression
regulates body temperature, food intake, thirst, sexual functions, and sleep

Front 118

Acetylcholine

Back 118

- released at NMJ in skeletal muscle
- can excite or inhibit
- inactivated by acetylcholinesterase

Front 119

Amino acid neurotransmitters

Back 119

- Gamma Amionbutyric Acid (GABA)
- glutamate
- asparte
- glycine

Front 120

Biogenic amine neurotransmitters

Back 120

- norepinephrine
- dopamine
- seratonin
- histamine

Front 121

Neuropeptide neurotransmitters

Back 121

largest family
- endorphins
- enkephalins
- angiotensin

Front 122

Nervous system produces neurotransmitters it dumps into ______

Back 122

synapses

Front 123

Endocrine system produces hormones it dumps into ________

Back 123

bloodstream

Front 124

Hormones are

Back 124

chemical messengers