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420 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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What is anatomy?
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the study of the structures of the body and the relationships among and between those structures
(describe what you see and locate organs) |
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What is physiology?
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the study of the functions of body structures
(are organs/structures working properly) |
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Gross anatomy is also called:
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macroscopic anatomy
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What is gross anatomy?
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a type of anatomy that can be undertaken without a microscope
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What is microscopic anatomy?
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requires a microscope (e.g., light or phase microscope)
micro = 10 to the -6 nano = 10 to the -9 |
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What is ultramicroscopic anatomy?
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requires the use of an electron microscope, either:
T.E.M. - transmission electron microscopy (in-depth, inside), or S.E.M. - scanning electron microscopy (surface) magnification of 250,000X |
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What is regional anatomy?
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studies specific regions of the body
(e.g., head and neck, thoracic) |
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Microscopic anatomy is also equal to:
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histology (and cytology)
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What is systemic anatomy?
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the study of a specific system
(e.g., digestive system, endocrine system) |
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What is radiographic anatomy?
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study of the structure of the body using X-rays
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What is cytology?
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microscopic study of the individual cells
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What is histology?
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microscopic study of the tissues (groups of cells)
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What is embryological anatomy?
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study of prenatal development (the fertilized egg) from days 12-58 (thereafter it is a fetus)
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What are some non-invasive imaging techniques?
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MRI
CAT Scan PET Scan X-ray |
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What is pathological anatomy?
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study of structural change associated with disease (or death)
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What is systemic physiology?
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study of the function of the systems
(e.g., the study of how you breathe using the respiratory system) |
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What is cell physiology?
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the study of the function of a cell, how it moves and does its work
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What is neurophysiology?
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the study of the function of nerve cells (reflexes, etc.)
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What is endocrinology?
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the study of hormones and how they control body functions
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What is immunology?
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the study of the body defense mechanisms (antibodies/immunoglobulin) against antigens
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What is homeostasis?
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an inner stability of the body, even if the environment outside of the body changes
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homeo =
stasis= |
same
standing (everything in balance) |
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When is homeostasis achieved?
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when structures (anatomy) and functions (physiology) are properly coordinated
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What makes the entire regulation process of homeostasis possible?
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the coordinated action of many organs and tissues under the control of the:
- nervous system and - endocrine system |
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What happens when homeostasis breaks down?
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we get sick or die
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What is one way to disrupt homeostasis?
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introduce stress
(a stressor/stimulus/disruptor) |
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What factors interrupt homeostasis and provoke change in the body?
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stressors
stimuli disruptors (all mean the same) |
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Stress is the overall disruption that forces the body to:
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make adaptive changes
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Factors causing stress are called:
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stressors
(or stimuli, or disruptors) |
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What are some stressors/stimuli/disruptors?
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- heat/cold
- viruses - mental disturbances - hormones |
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What does the feedback system look like?
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receptor---> control center ----> effector
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Name some receptors.
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thermoreceptors
chemoreceptors nociceptors |
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Which is the "stupid animal brain"?
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the hypothalamus
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Which portion of the brain is responsible for higher-level/more rational thought?
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the cortex
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The feedback system is:
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a response to the initiating stimulus
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Feedback may be:
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positive or negative
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What is negative feedback?
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when the response is opposite to the initiating stimulus
(e.g., body increases production of heat to oppose cold weather) |
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What is positive feedback?
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when the response reinforces the initial stimulus
positive feedback leads to death except in special cases like childbirth, lactation, and blood clotting |
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List the organizational levels of the body.
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- atom
- element - molecule/compound - cells - tissues - organs - organ systems - organism |
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What are the levels of organization found in both living and nonliving things?
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- atoms
- elements - molecules/compounds |
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What is the basic unit of all matter?
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atom
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What are the smallest thing we are made of?
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atoms
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What is a molecule?
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a combination of 2 or more atoms
(e.g., O2, H2) |
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What is a compound?
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a molecule containing atoms of more than one element
(e.g., H2O, CO2, protein, lipid) |
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What levels of organization are only found in living things?
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- cells
- tissues - organs - organ systems - (organism) |
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What are cells?
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the smallest independent units of life
the smallest living thing we're made of |
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What are tissues?
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a group of similar cells that perform a specific function
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How many types of tissue are there? What are they?
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4
- nervous - epithelial - muscular - connective |
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Where is epithelial tissue located?
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in the skin and lining of organs
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What functions does epithelial tissue perform?
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- protection
- transport - secretion - excretion - absorption |
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Where is connective tissue located?
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throughout the body
in many organs |
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What functions does connective tissue perform?
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- support
- protection (e.g., bone) - repair |
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Name some connective tissues.
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- tendons
- ligaments - cartilage - fat - blood - bone |
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What are the three types of muscle tissue?
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- skeletal
- smooth - cardiac |
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What are the two types of involuntary muscle tissues?
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- smooth
- cardiac |
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Which type of muscle is voluntary?
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skeletal
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Where is skeletal muscle found?
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in the limbs, face, abdomen, etc.
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Where is smooth muscle found?
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in the digestive system (peristalsis), blood vessels, uterus, etc.
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Where is cardiac muscle found?
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in the heart
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Where is nerve tissue found?
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- brain
- spinal cord - nerves |
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What is the function of nerve tissue?
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- respond to stimuli
- transport nerve impulses from one part of the body to another |
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What is an organ?
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two or more kinds of tissue bound together to form a structure
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What is the largest organ of the body?
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skin
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What is a system?
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a group of organs and their tissues that work together to perform a major function
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What comprises the integumentary system?
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- skin
- nails - hair - sweat glands - oil glands |
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What is the function of the integumentary system?
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- protection
- regulation of body temperature - sensory reception |
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What comprises the skeletal system?
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- bone
- cartilage |
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What is the function of the skeletal system?
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- support the body
- protect organs - manufacture RBCs - provide lever mechanism for movement |
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What comprises the muscular system?
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- skeletal muscle
- smooth muscle - cardiac muscle |
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What is the function of the muscular system?
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- body movement
- produce body heat |
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What comprises the nervous system?
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- brain
- spinal cord - peripheral nerves - sensory organs |
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What is the function of the nervous system?
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- regulates body activities
- initiates action of muscles - promotes homeostasis |
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What comprises the endocrine system?
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ductless glands
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What is the function of the endocrine system?
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- secrete hormones
- promotes homeostasis |
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What comprises the cardiovascular system?
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- heart
- blood vessels - blood |
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What is the function of the cardiovascular system?
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pump blood through the vessels for:
- transportation of gases - movement of nutrients |
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What comprises the respiratory system?
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- lungs
- airways - nose - pharynx - larynx |
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What is the function of the respiratory system?
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- breathing
- exchange of gases between air and blood |
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What comprises the digestive system?
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- organs from mouth to anus
- accessory structures such as liver, pancreas, etc. |
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What is the function of the digestive system?
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- break down food
- remove solid waste |
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What comprises the urinary system?
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- kidneys
- ureters - bladder - urethra |
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What is the function of the urinary system?
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- eliminate metabolic wastes
- regulate blood pressure - regulate water-salt balance |
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What comprises the reproductive system?
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- ovaries
- testes - germ cells - accessory glands - ducts |
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What is the function of the reproductive system?
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continuation of the species
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What comprises the lymphatic system?
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- lymph nodes
- lymph vessels - tonsils |
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What is the function of the lymphatic system?
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- immune system defense of body
- fat transport |
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What comprises the immune system?
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lymphocytes (T and B cells)
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What is the function of the immune system?
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- to defend the body from foreign invaders
- assist in repair of trauma |
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What is an organism?
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the complete human (animal)
the highest level of organization |
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From where did "anatomical position" originate?
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Vienna, Austria
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Describe anatomical position.
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- body standing erect
- facing forward - feet together - arms hanging at sides - palms facing forward (the way the body is facing) |
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Divides the body symmetrically into left and right halves
(longitudinal or vertical) |
midsagittal or median plane
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Divides the body asymmetrically into left and right parts
(longitudinal or vertical) |
sagittal or parasagittal plane
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Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections
(longitudinal or vertical) |
frontal or coronal plane
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Divides the body horizontally into superior and inferior sections
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transverse or horizontal plane
or crossection(al) |
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cranial or cephalic
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toward the head
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Caudal
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toward the tail
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superior
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above
to move up on a human |
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inferior
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below
to move down on a human |
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anterior or ventral
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toward the front
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posterior or dorsal
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toward the back
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medial
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toward the midline
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lateral
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away from the midline
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proximal
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nearer to the trunk
(only for limbs) |
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distal
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further from the trunk
(only for limbs) |
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superficial or external
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near the surface
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deep or internal
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farther from the surface
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dorsal of foot
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upper surface of foot
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dorsal of hand
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back of hand
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parietal
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related to body walls
(e.g., pleural membrane is parietal to lung) |
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visceral
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related to interior organ
(e.g., lung is visceral to pleural membrane) |
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supine
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to recline on one's back
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prone
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to recline on one's front
(lie face down on stomach) |
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oblique
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at an angle
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What are the two main regions of the body?
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- axial part
- appendicular part |
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What comprises the axial part of the body?
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- head
- neck - thorax - abdomen (basically everything but arms and legs) (I saw shoulder and pelvic girdles included with appendicular at one point????) |
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What comprises the appendicular part of the body?
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- upper limbs
- lower limbs |
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What is the purpose of the body cavities?
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to house and protect the organs
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What are the two main body cavities?
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- ventral
- dorsal (cavities are all in axial part b/c appendicular part--arms and legs--is solid) |
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What comprises the dorsal (posterior) cavity?
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- cranial cavity
- spinal (vertebral) cavity |
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What is the composition and function of the cranial cavity?
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- formed by the cranial bones
- houses and protects the brain |
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What is the composition and function of the vertebral (spinal) cavity?
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- formed by vertebrae of backbone
- houses and protects spinal cord and roots of spinal nerves |
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What cavities comprise the ventral (anterior) cavity?
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- thoracic cavity (upper)
- abdominopelvic cavity (lower) |
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Ventral (anterior) body cavity is located in the ____ _____ of the body.
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front aspect
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What comprises the thoracic cavity?
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- pericardial cavity
- pleural cavity - mediastinum |
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What is contained in the pericardial cavity?
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the heart
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What lines the pericardial cavity?
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the pericardium
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What type of membrane is the pericardium?
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serous
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What is contained in the (right and left) pleural cavities?
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the lungs
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What lines the pleural cavities?
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the pleura
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What type of membrane is the pleura?
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a serous membrane
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What is the mediastinum?
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the region or space between the lungs, the thoracic inlet, and the diaphragm
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What is contained within the mediastinum?
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- esophagus
- trachea - primary bronchi - thymus gland - heart (pericardial cavity) - large blood vessels - lymphatic vessels |
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What lines the abdominopelvic cavity?
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the peritoneum
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What type of membrane is the peritoneum?
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serous
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What are the boundaries for the abdominal cavity?
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- diaphragm at the top
- pelvic brim at the bottom |
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What is contained within the abdominal cavity?
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- stomach
- spleen - pancreas - liver - gallbladder - most of small and large intestines - kidneys - adrenal glands - most of ureters - major blood vessels (inferior vena cava, abdominal aorta) |
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What are the boundaries for the pelvic cavity?
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- pelvic brim at the top
- bottom of the cavity |
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What is contained within the pelvic cavity?
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- urinary bladder
- parts of small and large intestine - remainder of ureters - vermiform appendix - internal reproductive organs of male (seminal vesicles, prostate) and female (ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, upper vagina) |
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Into how many quadrants can the abdominopelvic cavity be divided? Name them.
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4
- right upper quadrant - right lower quadrant - left upper quadrant - left lower quadrant |
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Who uses quadrants in their jobs?
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clinicians, surgeons, etc.
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Into how many regions can the abdominopelvic cavity be divided? Name them.
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9
- right and left hypochondriac - right and left lumbar - right and left iliac/inguinal - epigastric - umbilical - hypogastric |
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Axillary
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armpit
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Buccal
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cheek
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Carpal
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wrist
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Celiac
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abdomen
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Cervical
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neck
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Costal
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ribs
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Gluteal
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buttocks
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Loin
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lumbar (lower back between ribs and pelvis)
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Palmar (metacarpal)
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palm of hand
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Pectoral
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chest
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Pedal (pedis)
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foot
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Perineal
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region between anus and external reproductive organs
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Plantar
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sole of foot
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Popliteal
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back of knee
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Cephalic (cranial) (caput)
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head
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Brachial
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arm
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Antecubital
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front of elbow
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Antebrachial
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forearm
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Crural
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leg
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Tarsal
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ankle/instep
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Inguinal
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groin
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Coxal
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hip
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Umbilical
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navel
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Mental
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chin
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Acromial
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shoulder (point of)
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Sural
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calf
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Calcaneal
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heel of foot
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Peritoneum
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lining of abdominal cavity
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What are 7 characteristics of living forms/living cells?
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- metabolism
- responsiveness - differentiation - growth - reproduction - adaptation - movement |
MR D GRAM
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What is metabolism?
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sum of all chemical processes that keep our bodies alive and healthy
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What are the 2 phases/parts of metabolism?
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- anabolism
- catabolism |
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What is catabolism?
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phase of metabolism that provides energy by breaking down complex molecules into simple molecules
(e.g., proteins ---> amino acids) |
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What is anabolism?
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phase of metabolism that uses the energy from catabolism to build up body's structural and functional components
a.k.a. biosynthesis (e.g., amino acids ---> proteins) |
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What is another word for anabolism?
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biosynthesis
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What is responsiveness, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?
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to respond to changes
to give a response to a stimulus |
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What is movement, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?
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motion of the body, organs, or cells
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What is growth, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?
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increase in size and complexity
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What is differentiation, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?
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specialization of the cells
(at conception all cells look alike, then differentiate==stem cells) |
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What is reproduction, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?
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formation of new cells or formation of a new individual
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What is adaptation, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?
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ability to adjust to any given condition
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Who uses abdominopelvic regions in their work?
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anatomists
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Whenever one is describing a body structure and establishes the relationship of that structure with the neighboring structure, it means that he is studying:
a. physiology b. endocrinology c. anatomy d. cytology |
c. anatomy
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The big toe is ______ to the other toes of the same side
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medial
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The stomach is _____ to the spleen
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medial
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The kidneys are _______ to the vertebral column
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lateral
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The skull is _______ to the brain
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superficial
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The head is ______ to the thorax
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superior
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Your arm is _______ to the wrist
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proximal
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Your legs are _______ to your thighs
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distal
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In anatomical position your palms are facing _______.
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anteriorly
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The breasts are _______ to the navel
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lateral
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The lungs are ______ to the ribs
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deep
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The skin is _______ to the muscle
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superficial
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Your eyes are ________ to your nose
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lateral
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Your thumb is ______ to the pinky.
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lateral
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The radius is ______ to the ulna
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lateral
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The sternum is ventral to the vertebral column. (T/F)
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true
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The vertebral column is posterior to the sternum. (T/F)
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true
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Visceral and parietal have the same meaning. (T/F)
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false
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Caudal and cranial are opposite, likewise plantar and dorsal are also opposite. (T/F)
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true
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The amplification of the effect of a stimulus will result in a “negative feedback”. (T/F)
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false
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The enhancement of the action of a stimulus will definitely be classified as a “positive feedback”. (T/F)
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true
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Homeostasis is mainly achieved through “negative feedback”. (T/F)
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true
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During surgery, the surgeon does his best to ensure that the patient does not bleed heavily through a process called hemostasis. Is it a positive feedback or a negative feedback?
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negative feedback
In case that the surgeon perform hemostasis, the feedback is negative because it is against the stimulus. In case hemostasis occurs spontaneously without outside intervention then the feedback is positive. |
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In which cavities are these organs located? Be very specific.
ovaries heart lungs transverse colon |
pelvic cavity
thoracic cavity/pericardial cavity thoracic cavity/pleural cavities abdominal cavity |
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In which cavities are these organs located? Be very specific.
abdominal aorta urinary bladder pancreas thymus |
abdominal cavity
pelvic cavity abdominal cavity thoracic cavity (mediastinum) |
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In which cavities are these organs located? Be very specific.
gall bladder rectum spine primary bronchus superior vena cava |
abdominal cavity
pelvic cavity vertebral/spinal cavity thoracic cavity (mediastinum) thoracic cavity |
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The head, the neck and the trunk are part of the appendicular region. (T/F)
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false
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The axial region encompasses
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everything but the arms and legs
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Is it true that cardiac muscle and skeletal muscles are both voluntary? Justify your answer.
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No. Skeletal muscles are voluntary and move when you tell them. Cardiac (and smooth) muscles are involuntary. You do not tell your heart to beat or digestive system to conduct peristalsis.
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Why do you think that smooth muscle can also be called visceral muscle?
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Because the smooth muscle lines many of the organs (viscera), like the ones in the digestive tract responsible for moving food via peristalsis.
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The type of tissue which responds readily to a stimulus is:
a. epithelial tissue b. nervous tissue |
b. nervous tissue
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All these organs are part of respiratory system except:
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, sebaceous glands, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs |
sebaceous glands
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A collection of organs which work together to perform a specific function is called:
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an organ system
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Prenatal development is also called:
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embryological anatomy
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Laparoscopy and arthroscopy are non-invasive techniques. (T/F)
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false
they are minimally invasive, but you're still cutting into someone |
|
|
|
The ______ system dumps all its products into the bloodstream.
|
endocrine
|
|
|
|
The study of the bodily function is histology. (T/F)
|
false
physiology |
|
|
|
These two systems, namely _____ and _____ are involved in regulating homeostasis.
|
nervous
endocrine |
|
|
|
The lactation process is a negative feedback process. (T/F) Please justify your answer.
|
false
the more the baby eats, the more milk is made |
|
|
|
The planes which divide the body symmetrically into left and right parts will be called:
|
median plane or
midsagittal plane |
|
|
|
My stomach is located in the ______ plane.
|
parasagittal
|
|
|
|
The plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior is called:
|
frontal plane or
coronal plane |
|
|
|
When an MRI is performed, the anatomical plane involved is:
|
transverse plane or
horizontal plane |
|
|
|
The transverse plane is different from the horizontal plane. (T/F)
|
false
|
|
|
|
The sum of all the chemical reactions taking place in your body is called:
|
metabolism
|
|
|
|
Biosynthesis is considered the same as:
anabolic reaction catabolic reaction |
anabolic reaction
|
|
|
|
Specialization is also called _______ in anatomy.
|
differentiation
|
|
|
|
Decomposition is to catabolism what biosynthesis is to:
|
anabolism
|
|
|
|
The inguinal region is also called the:
|
iliac region
|
|
|
|
What is chemistry?
|
the study of the composition of matter
the study of what a structure is made of |
|
|
|
What is matter?
|
anything that takes up space and has mass
|
|
|
|
Matter consists of:
|
chemical elements in pure form, and in combinations called compounds
|
|
|
|
In what three states does matter exist?
|
- solid
- liquid - gas |
|
|
|
What is mass?
|
the measure of the amount of matter an object contains
|
|
|
|
What is weight?
|
a measure of the pull of gravity on a mass
|
|
|
|
What is an element?
|
a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical means
a kind of atom (hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, etc.) |
|
|
|
How many naturally occurring elements are there?
|
92
|
|
|
|
How many naturally occurring elements are essential for life?
|
25
|
|
|
|
What four elements make up 96 percent of living matter?
|
- hydrogen (9.7%)
- oxygen (65%) - nitrogen (3.2%) - carbon (18.6%) |
|
|
|
The remaining 4 percent of living matter is comprised of:
|
- potassium (K)
- sulfur (S) - sodium (Na) - chlorine (Cl) - magnesium (Mg) and trace elements |
|
|
|
What is energy?
|
the ability to do work
|
|
|
|
The number of protons ______ an element and ______ _____ ______
|
defines
does not change |
|
|
|
The number of protons in an element is known as its:
|
atomic number
if 1 proton, MUST be hydrogen if 7 protons, MUST be carbon, etc. |
|
|
|
Explain:
12 13 C C 6 6 |
top number is atomic mass or mass number
middle is the symbol for the element bottom is atomic number these are 2 isotopes of carbon |
|
|
|
What is chemical energy?
|
energy stored in chemical bonds of molecules
ATP (adenosine triphosphate--made by mitochondria) |
|
|
|
What is potential energy?
|
energy stored in matter because of its position
|
|
|
|
What are two types of potential energy?
|
- chemical energy
- electrical energy |
|
|
|
What is electrical energy?
|
energy of charged particles stored in a particular location, such as a battery
energy derived from the flow of electrons energy of charged particles (electrons) moving and creating a current |
|
|
|
What is kinetic energy?
|
the energy of motion
|
|
|
|
What are three types of kinetic energy?
|
- heat
- electromagnetic energy - electrical energy |
|
|
|
What is heat?
|
the energy of molecular motion
|
|
|
|
What is electromagnetic energy?
|
the energy of moving photons, e.g., light
|
|
|
|
How are elements classified in the periodic table?
|
based on their chemical properties
|
|
|
|
What is the first law of thermodynamics?
|
energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another
|
|
|
|
What is the second law of thermodynamics?
|
as energy forms convert form one form to another, the universe increases in disorder
|
|
|
|
What is an atom?
|
the basic unit of all matter
the smallest possible unit of matter that retains the physical and chemical properties of that element nucleus and electron shell |
|
|
|
The structure of an atom determines:
|
its chemical behavior
|
|
|
|
What are the subatomic particles?
|
neutrons (no charge)
protons (positive charge) electrons (negative charge) |
|
|
|
How are electrons arranged in the electron cloud/shell (for our purposes)?
|
2 maximum in innermost layer
8 maximum in second layer 8 maximum in third layer |
|
|
|
What is the atomic number?
|
the number of protons in the nucleus
(it is also equal to the number of electrons, if the atom is neutral) |
|
|
|
What is the atomic mass?
|
the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in an atom
|
|
|
|
What is another term for atomic mass?
|
mass number
|
|
|
|
What is the atomic weight?
|
the average of the mass numbers of an element's isotopes
|
|
|
|
What are the energy levels of electrons?
|
arrangement of electrons in an atom into different layers (a.k.a. electron shells or orbitals)
electrons have potential energy due to their position relative to the nucleus of the atom |
|
|
|
How many electrons can the first electron shell hold?
The second and third? (for our purposes anyway) |
2 (K orbital)
8 (L orbital) 8 (M orbital) |
|
|
|
The chemical behavior of atoms is determined by:
|
configuration of its electrons
|
|
|
|
What are valence electrons?
|
electrons in the outermost electron shell of the atom
|
|
|
|
What is the outermost electron shell of an atom called?
|
valence shell
|
|
|
|
How many valence electrons are in:
1) hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium 2) helium, calcium 3) carbon 4) nitrogen 5) oxygen 6) chlorine |
1 - H, Li, Na, K
2 - He, Ca 4 - C 5 - N 6 - O 7 - Cl |
|
|
|
The chemical behavior of atoms is determined by:
|
configuration of its electrons
|
|
|
|
Chemical bonds formed between atoms involve:
|
valence electrons
|
|
|
|
What is an isotope?
|
various atoms of an element that have the same number of protons (because that defines the element) but different numbers of neutrons
|
|
|
|
What are radioactive isotopes?
|
isotopes that are decaying to a more stable configuration
as they decay they emit radiation some have medical uses: Iodine-131 - check thyroid size/activity Radium-226 - cancer radiation therapy |
|
|
|
What is a half-life?
|
the amount of time for half of the radioactive isotope to decay and disappear
|
|
|
|
What are molecules?
|
two or more atoms chemically combined (forming bonds)
|
|
|
|
What are chemical bonds?
|
attractions between atoms that hold molecules together
|
|
|
|
What are three types of chemical bonds?
|
- covalent bonds
- ionic bonds - hydrogen bonds |
|
|
|
What are covalent bonds?
|
chemical bonds formed by atoms SHARING one or more pairs of electrons
|
|
|
|
What are two types of covalent bonds?
|
nonpolar covalent bonds - atoms share electron pair(s) equally
polar covalent bonds - atoms share pair(s) of electrons unequally (e.g., water) |
|
|
|
What makes a covalent bond nonpolar?
|
the atoms share the electron pair(s) equally
e.g., H2 - each H atom needs one more electron to fill its valence shell; they each share their own electron equally because they are the same size and exert the same amount of pull on the electrons |
|
|
|
What makes a covalent bond polar?
|
the atoms do not share the electrons equally
e.g., with water, O needs an electron from each H atom; as the O atom is so much larger, it exerts more force on the electrons, making that end of the compound slightly negative and leaving the H ends slightly positive |
|
|
|
What is an ion?
|
a charged atom or molecule
|
|
|
|
What is an anion?
|
an atom that has gained one or more electrons from another atom and become negatively charged
e.g., Cl- (receiver, negative, anion) takes electron from Na |
|
|
|
What is a cation?
|
an atom that has lost one or more electrons and become positively charged
e.g., Na+ (giver, positive, cation) gives electron to Cl |
|
|
|
Are ionic bonds strong or weak?
|
weak
|
|
|
|
What is an ionic bond?
|
bond formed by the attraction between an atom with a positive electrical charge (cation) and an atom with a negative electrical charge (anion)
|
|
|
|
What is a hydrogen bond?
|
a bond formed when a covalently bonded hydrogen atom acquires a slight positive charge and becomes attracted to negatively charged atoms nearby
(because the H atom is so small it loses out in covalent bonding and becomes slightly positive) |
|
|
|
Are hydrogen bonds weak or strong?
|
weak
|
|
|
|
A molecule's biological function is closely related to:
|
its shape
|
|
|
|
What is an electrolyte?
|
ions in solution
|
|
|
|
What are chemical reactions?
|
the process of making and/or breaking chemical bonds, which leads to changes in the composition of matter
|
|
|
|
What is on each side of the equation in a chemical reaction?
|
reactants -----> products
|
|
|
|
List six types of chemical reactions.
|
- synthesis reactions (anabolism)
- decomposition reaction (catabolism) - oxidation (produces cation) - reduction (produces anion) - dehydration reaction (condensation reaction) - hydrolysis reaction |
|
|
|
What is another name for a synthesis reaction?
|
anabolism
|
|
|
|
What is a synthesis reaction (anabolism)?
|
combining 2 or more atoms or molecules to form a more complex one (e.g., A + B ---> AB)
stores (chemical/potential) in the bonds |
|
|
|
What is another name for a decomposition reaction?
|
catabolism
|
|
|
|
What is a decomposition reaction (catabolism)?
|
breaking of chemical bonds to form 2 or more products (e.g., AB ---> A + B)
releases (chemical/potential) energy contained in the bonds |
|
|
|
What is oxidation?
|
when an atom or molecule loses electrons or hydrogen ions
OIL - oxidation is loss (cation) |
|
|
|
What is reduction?
|
when an atom or molecule gains electrons or hydrogen ions
RIG - reduction is gain (anion) |
|
|
|
What is a redox reaction?
|
since oxidation and reduction reactions always occur together, that is what they are sometimes referred to as
|
|
|
|
What is dehydration synthesis/a dehydration reaction?
|
bonding molecules by removing water
anabolic process by which 2 molecules are chemically bonded through the use of enzymes and loss of water glucose + glucose + enzyme = maltose + water + enzyme |
|
|
|
What is another name for dehydration synthesis/reaction?
|
condensation reaction
|
|
|
|
What is hydrolysis?
|
breaking a bond by adding water (a gain of water)
catabolic process by which the bonds between monomers are broken by enzymes and the addition of water (you're breaking up the water and adding it in) sucrose + water + enzyme = glucose + fructose + enzyme |
|
|
|
By what means can one increase the rate of chemical reactions?
|
- concentration of reactants (increase)
- agitation - size of particles (decrease) - temperature (increase) - enzymes as catalysts |
CASTE
|
|
|
What makes a compound organic?
|
carbon (linked to hydrogen)
carbon alone, inorganic (e.g., CO2) |
|
|
|
What are the properties of water?
|
- main regulator of homeostasis
- most abundant inorganic compound in the body - approximately 62% of body is water - very stable liquid at broad range of temperatures - very polar molecule, thus it dissolves many substances |
|
|
|
What is the main regulator of homeostasis?
|
water
|
|
|
|
what is the most abundant inorganic compound in the body?
|
water
|
|
|
|
Water is used in the body as:
|
- solvent
- temperature regulator - transporter - lubricant - cushion |
|
|
|
What causes surface tension in water?
|
hydrogen bonding that causes water molecules to stick together
|
|
|
|
What is a solution?
|
a liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
|
|
|
|
What is a solvent?
|
the dissolving agent of a solution
|
|
|
|
What is a solute?
|
the substance dissolved in a solution
|
|
|
|
What is an aqueous solution?
|
a solution in which the solvent is water
|
|
|
|
What is an acid?
|
a substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water
(e.g., HCl ---> H+ + Cl-) a proton donor |
|
|
|
What is a base?
|
a substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) or releases hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water
NH3 + H+ ---> NH4- KOH ---> K+ + OH- |
|
|
|
What is a salt?
|
a substance that releases a cation other than H+ and an anion other than OH- when dissolved in water
NaCl ---> NA+ + Cl- KBr ---> K+ + Br- product of an acid and a base HCl + NaOH ---> H2O + NaCl |
|
|
|
Acid + base =
|
salt (and water)
|
|
|
|
Another word for base/basic:
|
alkaline
|
|
|
|
What is the pH of blood?
What keeps it there? |
7.35-7.45
buffers help maintain it e.g., if you drink coffee, your blood will be temporarily acidic, then the buffers will intervene and bring it back in line |
|
|
|
What is pH?
|
the expression of acidity or alkalinity of a solution
the negative log of the concentration of H+ expressed in moles per liter |
|
|
|
What is the scale for pH?
|
a scale from 0-14 to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution
acidic from 0- <7 alkaline from >7-14 7 is neutral |
|
|
|
What is an acidic solution?
|
a solution in which which the pH is greater than 0 and less than 7
the lower the number the more acidic the solution and the higher the concentration of H+ I think he said <= 5 is strong acid and above that was weak acid |
|
|
|
What is a basic solution?
|
a solution in which the pH is greater than 7 and less than 14
the higher the number the more basic the solution because the concentration of H+ is lower |
|
|
|
What is a neutral solution?
|
a solution in which the pH is equal to 7
the concentration of H+ is equal to the concentration of OH-, and is thus neutral |
|
|
|
What are buffers?
|
chemical substances that regulate the changes in pH and therefore help maintain homeostasis in the body
buffers are weak acids or weak bases that are added to neutralize strong bases or strong acids |
|
|
|
What is organic chemistry?
|
the study of organic compounds
|
|
|
|
What are organic compounds?
|
compounds that contain carbon and usually hydrogen
typically large and complex, and covalently bonded e.g., carbs - CHO, proteins (COOH carboxyls), fats (C saturated w/H on glycerol), vitamins, DNA, RNA |
|
|
|
What is an inorganic compound?
|
compounds that do not contain carbon bonded to carbon, or carbon bonded to hydrogen
e.g., water, minerals, CO2, oxygen, nitrogen carbon alone is inorganic lack of carbon is inorganic |
|
|
|
Why are carbon atoms such versatile building blocks?
|
carbon has 4 valence electrons and needs 4 covalent bonds to complete its valence shell
this makes it possible for carbon to form large, complex molecules |
|
|
|
What are the 6 categories of nutrients required by the body?
|
- carbohydrates (organic--CHO)
- proteins (organic--COOH carboxyl) - fats (organic--C saturated w/H on glycerol) - vitamins (organic) minerals - inorganic water - inorganic |
|
|
|
Of what are carbohydrates comprised and what is their purpose?
|
CHO
carbo + hydrate = carbon + water major source of energy for the body |
|
|
|
How many types of carbohydrates are there, and what are they?
|
- monosaccharides
- disaccharides - polysaccharides |
|
|
|
What are monosaccharides?
|
"simple sugars" - the only sugar we can absorb
contain 3-7 carbon atoms e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose |
|
|
|
What are disaccharides?
|
"double sugars"
combination of 2 monosaccharides e.g., sucrose = glucose + fructose maltose = glucose + glucose lactose = glucose + galactose |
|
|
|
What are glucose, fructose, and galactose?
|
"simple sugars" = monosaccharides
all 6-carbon (hexose) but different structures (isomers) |
|
|
|
What is an isomer?
|
variances in structure of a compound
same formula, different arrangement of atoms (e.g., glucose and fructose are both hexose, but formed differently) |
|
|
|
Why do sugars dissolve in water so readily?
|
their covalent polar bonds are easily broken in water
C6H12O6 = C + H2O |
|
|
|
How are the bonds of disaccharides broken into monosaccharides so they can be absorbed?
|
by an enzyme
sucrase breaks the glucose + fructose bond of sucrose lactase breaks the glucose + galactose bond of lactose maltase breaks the glucose + glucose bond of maltose |
|
|
|
What are polysaccharides?
|
combinations of more than 2 monosaccharides
e.g., starch, glycogen (in muscles & liver), cellulose, heparin (anticoagulant) |
|
|
|
How are carboydrates catabolized?
|
from polysaccharides ----> disaccharides ---> monosaccharides with the use of enzymes at each step
|
|
|
|
What are lipids?
|
a combination of CHO, but in different ratios than carbohydrates
|
|
|
|
Lipids may contain other elements such as:
|
phosphorous and nitrogen
|
|
|
|
What are some lipid categories?
|
- triglycerides
- phospholipids - steroids - eicosanoids |
|
|
|
What are triglycerides?
|
most abundant form of lipids, both in the diet and in the body
neutral fats (pH = 7) 3 fatty acids (saturated or unsaturated) on backbone of glycerol |
|
|
|
What are saturated fatty acids?
|
- no carbon=carbon double bonds
- full of hydrogen (saturated) - solid at room temperature b/c they are straight and stackable - found in animal fat - "slow killer" |
|
|
|
What are unsaturated fatty acids?
|
- one or more carbon=carbon double bonds, where they bend
- bend prevents stacking, thus liquid at room temperature - 1 bend = monounsaturated fat - more than 1 bend = polyunsaturated fat |
|
|
|
What are phospholipids?
|
the main component of cell membranes
composed of glycerol, 2 fatty acids, phosphate group |
|
|
|
How do phospholipids form the cell membrane?
|
in a bilayer,
hydrophilic phosphorus heads facing out hydrophobic lipid tails together |
|
|
|
What are steroids?
|
lipids that are composed of four fused carbon rings
e.g., cholesterol, bile salts, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, corticosteroid hormones (aldosterone, prednisone) |
|
|
|
What are eicosanoids?
|
lipids that are chemical messengers between cells
|
|
|
|
Name some eicosanoids.
|
- prostaglandins - cause contraction of smooth muscles
- leukotrienes - involved in allergic and inflammatory responses - thromboxone - clotting promoter |
|
|
|
What is a protein?
|
a covalently bonded chain of (more than 100) amino acids
composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and always nitrogen may contain sulfur, phosphorus, and iron |
|
|
|
What are dipeptides, tripeptides, and polypeptides?
|
- a chain of 2 amino acids
- a chain of 3 amino acids - a chain of 15-100 amino acids and, of course, a protein is a chain of more than 100 amino acids |
|
|
|
What are amino acids?
|
the building blocks of protein
central carbon bonded to: - amino group (NH2) - hydrogen (H) - carboxyl group (COOH) - variable side chain (R) |
|
|
|
How many different "R" groups are there?
|
20, which means there are 20 different amino acids
|
|
|
|
What are essential amino acids?
How many are there? |
those that cannot be manufactured by the body and must be consumed in the diet
9 (11?) |
|
|
|
What are nonessential amino acids?
How many are there? |
amino acids that can be manufactured in the body, and don't have to be consumed in the diet
11 (9?) |
|
|
|
How are amino acids joined together?
|
by a peptide bond
dehydration reaction bonds carboxyl carbon (COOH) of one amino acid to the nitrogen (NH) of the next amino acid |
|
|
|
How many levels of protein structure are there?
|
4
- primary structure - secondary structure - tertiary structure - quaternary structure |
|
|
|
What is the primary structure of a protein?
|
the list of the amino acids
also called the sequence of the amino acids sequence is determined by the DNA in the nucleus of the cells |
|
|
|
What makes you, you?
|
the DNA in the nucleus of your cells, which tells amino acids how to sequence to form proteins
|
|
|
|
Alterations in the sequence of amino acids may cause:
|
change in the functioning of the protein (which has serious consequences)
|
|
|
|
What is the secondary structure of a protein?
|
the twisting or folding of the chain of amino acids
|
|
|
|
What holds the secondary structure of a protein together?
|
hydrogen bonds
|
|
|
|
What are the 2 types of secondary structures of a protein?
|
alpha helix and beta sheet (pleating)
|
|
|
|
What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
|
folding and coiling of the protein chain into an overall globular shape due to interactions between "R" groups or between "R" groups and water
|
|
|
|
What types of bonds form tertiary structures?
|
covalent and/or ionic
|
|
|
|
What is the quaternary structure of a protein?
|
interaction of two or more polypeptide chains to form a complete protein
|
|
|
|
All 4 levels of protein structure must be maintained for the protein to _____ ____.
|
function properly
|
|
|
|
What is the key to a protein's function?
|
the protein's conformation (shape)
|
|
|
|
What is denaturation of a protein?
|
drastic change in the conformation of a protein which may render it useless for its original function
|
|
|
|
How may proteins be denatured?
|
by changes in
- temperature (e.g., cooking egg white) - pH change |
|
|
|
What are some types of proteins?
|
- antibodies (protect against disease)
- hemoglobin (carry oxygen in blood) - enzymes (control chemical activity) - polypeptides (many amino acids bound together) |
|
|
|
What do enzymes do?
|
- speed up rate of chemical reactions in the body by lowering the amount of activation energy needed
- can be reused--are not consumed or permanently changed in the reaction - are very substrate-specific also called catalysts |
|
|
|
What are nucleic acids?
|
organic compounds composed of nucleotides
(so named b/c they are in the nucleus of every cell) |
|
|
|
What are the three components of nucleotides?
|
- one or more phosphate groups
- a 5-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) - nitrogenous base |
|
|
|
What are the nitrogenous bases associated with DNA? What changes in RNA?
|
(The Pyrimidines)
- cytosine (C) - uracil (U) - RNA - thymine (T) - DNA (The Purines) - adenine (A) - guanine (G) |
-C-
UT = Pyrimidines Purines - AG |
|
|
DNA is the major component of:
|
chromosomes, the hereditary information contained in the nucleus of cells
|
|
|
|
DNA controls:
|
activity of cells by controlling protein synthesis
|
|
|
|
DNA is a double-stranded helix with what type(s) of bonding?
|
- covalent bonds between the components of the nucleotides and
- hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases to hold the 2 strands together |
|
|
|
Which nitrogenous bases bond in DNA? In RNA?
|
DNA -
-- adenine with thymine, and -- cytosine with guanine RNA - -- adenine with uracil -- cytosine with guanine |
|
|
|
The sequence of nucleotides determines:
|
heredity
|
|
|
|
A change in DNA sequence (mutation) may produce:
|
a hereditary change
(not all mutations change the final product--the protein) |
|
|
|
What sugar is contained in DNA? In RNA?
|
- deoxyribose
- ribose |
|
|
|
What is RNA?
|
a single-stranded molecule involved in protein synthesis in cells
|
|
|
|
What are the 4 main types of RNA?
|
- messenger RNA (mRNA)
- transfer RNA (tRNA) - ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - nuclear RNA (nRNA) |
|
|
|
What is ATP?
|
adenosine triphosphate
the energy molecule for cells |
|
|
|
How do cells use ATP?
|
cells store energy as ATP and use it to perform cell functions
when needed, ATP is hydrolyzed using enzymes to form ADP and an inorganic phosphate group (triphosphate to diphosphate) |
|
|
|
ATP + H2O ---->
|
ADP + Pi + energy for work/heat
|
|
|
|
Of what is ATP composed?
|
- adenine
- ribose (5-carbon sugar) - 3 phosphate groups (tri-) |
|
|
|
Where is ATP manufactured?
|
most ATP is synthesized in the mitochondria in a series of reactions called cellular respiration
|
|
|
|
The smallest quantity of an element which still reflects or possesses its characteristic is called:
|
an atom
|
|
|
|
If someone decided to starve himself, he would likely develop
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metabolic acidosis
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What is respiratory alkalosis?
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too much CO2 elevates blood pH
caused by hyperventilating |
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The most abundant polysaccharide in our diet is
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starch
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We cannot digest cellulose, but why do we need it in our diet?
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it is the dietary fiber needed to assist digestion and it becomes the bulk that assists bowel movements
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Why are some people lactose intolerant?
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they lack an adequate amount of the enzyme lactase and therefore cannot break lactose down into its usable monosaccharide components
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When the liver synthesizes glycogen from glucose, the process is
anabolism or catabolism? |
anabolism
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Dehydration reaction derives from
a. anabolism b. catabolism c. glycolysis d. decomposition |
anabolism
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The linear sequences of amino acids gives rise to _____ ______ structure.
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three dimensional
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All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. (T/F)
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true
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Are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic? Substantiate your answer.
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hydrophobic
they are insoluble in water due to their nonpolar covalent bonds |
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The basic unit for nucleic acids is ________
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nucleotides
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What are the components of a typical nucleotide?
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- nitrogen base,
- 5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose or ribose, and - phosphate group |
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What nucleic acid is made up of a fragment of genes?
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DNA
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Name four organic macromolecules.
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- carbohydrates
- proteins - lipids - vitamins |
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Two examples of eicosanoids:
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- prostaglandins
- leukotrienes |
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Is prostaglandin a lipid?
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yes
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All enzymes are carbohydrates? (T/F)
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false, they are proteins
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Are enzymes useful for chemical reaction?
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yes, because almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates sufficient for life; enzymes are proteins that catalyze (increase the rates of) chemical reactions; in enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process (substrates) are converted into different molecules, called products
they lower energy needed for reactions |
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What molecule, produced in the mitochondria, generates energy?
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ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
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Give 2 examples of hexose.
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6-carbon sugar
galactose and glucose |
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What is the purpose of RNA?
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protein synthesis
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What is the purpose of DNA?
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genetic material
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List some lipids
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- triglycerides (saturated and unsaturated fatty acids)
- phospholipids - steroids - eicosanoids |
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What is a gene?
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a segment of DNA
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