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173 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
nutrients
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-all living organisms acquire nutrients from environment
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electron
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-a component of an atom that does not add significantly to its mass
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elements contained in all living things
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-nitrogen
-phosphorus -sulfur -carbon |
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covalent bond
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-sharing of electrons between atoms
-strongest bond |
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ionic bonds
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-transfer of electrons from one atom to another
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molecule of water
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-formed during formation of a peptide linkage
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buffers
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-maintain a constant pH when either acids or bases are added to them
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amphipathic
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-molecules that are both attracted to water and repel water
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disaccharide
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-which is composed of 2 glucose units
-ie. maltose |
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what determines if a molecule is polar, nonpolar, or ionic?
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-differences in the electonegativities of the atoms of the atom
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ionic bonds of sodium chloride is formed when
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-chlorine gains an electron from sodium
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aldeheydes and ketones are very similar in that they both contain
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-C=O group
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atomic number
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-number of protons in an element
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fatty acids
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-molecules composed of hydrocarbon chain and carboxyl group
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mass number
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-atom determined by the sum of the number of protons and neutrons it contains
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function of starch
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-principle energy storage compound of plants
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function of glycogen
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-main storage of energy in animals
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the ability of an atom to combine with other atoms is determined by
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-number and distribution of electrons
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how many electrons does carbon share in order to complete its valence shell? (Carbon 6)
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-4
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general chemical formula for carbohydrates includes the atoms
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C,H,O
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metabolism
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-all chemical transformations and other work done in cell or organism
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equilibrium
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-narrow, stable range of conditions in which cells are maintained within body of an organism
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hydrogen bond
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-attraction between slight positive charge on a hydrogen atom and slight negative charge of nearby electronegative atoms
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basic structure of a biological membrane
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-consists of phospholipid bilayer, with a hydrophobic interior and hydrophillic exterior
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functional group of written as -COOH
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-carboxl
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the reaction H--A--OH -> H-A-B--OH + H2O represents
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-hydrolysis
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proteins are polymers composed of
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-amino acids
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all proteins
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-consist of 1 or more polypeptide chains
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difference between DNA and RNA
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-DNA consist of deoxyribose
-RNA consist of ribose |
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monosaccharides
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-monomers that make up polymeric carbohydrates like starch
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amino acids of protein keratin are arranged in an alpha helix. secondary structure is stabilized by
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-hydrogen bonds
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nucleotide of DNA is made up of
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-base and deoxyribose sugar and phosphate
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amphipathic
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-molecules that are both attracted to water and repel water
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condensation reaction
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-protein synthesis result from them
-polysaccharide synthesis results from them -involve covalent bond -different condensation reaction produce different kinds of macromolecules |
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enzymes
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-are proteins
-have specific amino acid sequence -are highly specific -lower the energy barier |
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intermediate filaments
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-tough rope like filaments that stabilize cell structure and resist tension
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metabolic pathways
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-the product of one reaction is reactant for the next reaction
-series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions -similar in all organisms -are compartmentalized in eukaryotes |
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aquaporins
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-plants and animal cells have membrane channels that allow water to pass through
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peroxisomes
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-collect and neutralize toxic peroxides that are formed unavoidably as side products of important cellular reactions
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capsule
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-surround some bacteria with outer layer of slime
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cofactors
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-zinc ions that bind to enzymes
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phagocytosis
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-process by which plasma membrane engulfs large particles or even whole cells
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the difference between nucleosides and nucleotides
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-only nucleotides contain phosphate group
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nucleotides in RNA are connected to one another in polynucleotide chain by
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-covalent bonds between bases
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cytoskeleton consist of
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-microtubules
-intermediate filaments -microfilaments |
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primary structure
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-is held by covalent bonds
-is unique to its protein -determines the tertiary structure of the protein -sequence of amino acids in protein |
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the driving force of active transport
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-ATP hydrolysis
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ribosomes are the structure in which
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-genetic information used to make proteins
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major distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
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-prokaryotic cells do not have nucleus, whereas eukaryotic does
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double helix structure in DNA is overall result from
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-hydrogen bonding of 2 complementary polynucleotide strands
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noncompetitive inhibitor inhibits binding of a substrate to an enzyme by
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-binding to an active site
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bases found in DNA
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-Adenine
-Thymine -Guanine -Cytosine |
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feedback inhibition
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-process by which and end product acts as an inhibitor of the commitment step in metabolic pathway
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chromatin is series of entangled threads composed of
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-protein and DNA
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binding of substrate to active site of an enzyme is
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-reversible
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plasma membrane of a cell
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-separates the cell form its environment
-regulates what goes into and out of cell -helps maintain constant internal environment |
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secondary structure
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-beta pleated sheet organization in a polypeptide protein
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hydrophillic regions of a membrane protein are most likely
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-exposed on the surface of a membrane
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quaternary structure is found in proteins
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-composed of subunits
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chlorolplasts are structures in which
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-sunlight energy is converted into chemical energy
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peptide chains have a
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-N terminus end and a C terminus end
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active site
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-the part of the enzyme that binds with a substrate
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components of endomembrane system
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-rough ER
-smooth ER -Golgi apparatus -lysosomes |
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steroids such as cholesterol are synthesized by
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-smooth ER
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amino acids can be grouped according to the properties of their
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-R groups
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diffusion
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-does not require ATP
-continues until molecular structure concentrations are in equilibrium -molecules move from areas of greater concentration to areas of lesser concentration -random process |
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functional roles of membrane proteins
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-allowing movement of molecules that otherwise would be excluded by the lipid components of the membrane
-transferring signals from outside the cell to inside the cell -facilitating the movement of water across membrane -facilitating transport of macromolecules across membrane |
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the 5' -carbon of deoxyribose is attached to
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-phosphate group
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biological membranes are composed of
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-lipids
-proteins -carbohydrates |
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denatured protein
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-protein that has become nonfunctional due to its loss of its 3-dimensional structure
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allosteric inhibitor
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-changes shape of an enzyme
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the enzyme sucrase increases the rate at which sucrose is broken down into glucose and fructose. Sucrose works by
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-lowering activation energy of the reaction
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involve the uptake of material into the cell
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-pinocytosis
-endocytosis -receptor-mediated endocytosis -phagocytosis |
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a nucleotide in DNA is made up of
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-sugar plus a phosphate
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when placed in hypertonic solutions, animal cells
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-shrink
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rate at which substance diffuses is affected by
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-diameter of molecules or ions
-temperature of solution -concentration gradient in system |
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lysosomes are important in eukaryotic cells because they contain
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-digestive enzymes
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rough ER is the portion of the ER that
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-has ribosomes attached to it
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amino acids can be classified by
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-characteristics of side chains
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when a severely dehydrated patient is brought to the hospital, and IV of normal saline is started immediately, distilled water is not used because
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-it would cause the patient's blood cells to swell and eventually burst
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paracrine signals
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-signals that bind to receptors on nearby cells
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signal ligands can be divided into 2 general classes according to their receptors. which of the following are 2 kinds of receptors ?
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-plasma membrane and cytoplasmic
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if G protein were unable to release its bound nucleotide but could hydrolyze it, signal transduction would
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-stop
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if all the lysosomes within cell suddenly ruptured, what would be the most likely result?
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-macromolecules in the cytosol would break down
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function of NAD+
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-carry hydrogen atoms and free energy from compounds being oxidized, and to give hydrogen atoms and free energy to compounds being reduced
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when a molecule loses hydrogen atoms, it becomes
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-oxidized
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transmembrane protein
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-protein that forms an ion channel through a membrane
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ribosomes are found in
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-prokayotic cells
-rough ER -chloroplasts -mitochondria |
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cell signaling causes
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-change in receptor conformation
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signals that bind to receptors of the same cell that made them are known as
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-autocrine signals
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triploid plants
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-3 times the chance of surviving that a monoploid has
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during glycolysis, for each mole of glucose oxidized to pyruvate
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-2 mol of ATP are produced
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a typical eukaryotic cell cycle consist of
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interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis
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during the fermentation of one molecule of glucose, the net production of ATP is
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-2 molecules
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in an organism with a diploid number of 8
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-a gamete has 4 chromosomes
-a liver cell has 8 chromosomes -sperm cell at meiotic anaphase I has 8 chromosomes |
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during the first step of the citric acid cycle, energy stored in acetyl CoA is used to
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-drive the reaction oxaloacetate -> citric acid
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sexual reproduction increases variability through
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-crossing over,independent assortment, and random fertilization
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down syndrome is diagnosed by means of an examination of individual's
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-karyotype
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the component of aerobic respiration that produces most ATP per mole of glucose is
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-electron transport chain
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molecules that make up chromosome are
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DNA and proteins
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paracrine signals
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-signals that bind to receptors on nearby cells
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electron transport chain contains 4 large protein complexes. these proteins are
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-embedded in inner membrane of mitochondrion
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in complete oxidation of glucose, 6 CO2 molecules are formed per glucose oxidized. the numbers of CO2 molecules released by glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and pyruvate oxidation.
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-0 glycolysis
-4 citric acid cycle -2 pyruvate oxidation |
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nondisjunctions
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-accidents during meiosis that can result in trisomies and monosomies
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receptors
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-specific to signal ligands
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a drug destroys the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. what would be the effect of incubating isolated mitochondria in a solution of that medicine?
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-no ATP would be made during transport of electrons down the respiratory chain
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members of a homologous pair of chromosomes
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-identical in size and appearance
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receptor
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-next component of signal transduction pathway, after signal itself
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asexual reproduction produces identical individuals because
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-no meiosis or fertilization takes place
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haploid cell
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-containing only one copy of each chromosome
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phases of cell cycle part of interphase
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-G1, S, G2
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yeast cells tend to create anaerobic conditions and therefore
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-produce ethanol
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suppose that you add cyanide to suspension of muscle cells from a rat. what effects on glucose catabolism
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-citric acid cycle and glycolysis would be stimulated
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glycolysis
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-in all cells
-starts glucose metabolism |
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electron transport chain
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-electrons are received from NADH and FADH2
-terminal electrons acceptor is usually oxygen -most enzymes are part of inner mitochondrial membrane -electrons are passed from donor to recipient carrier molecules in series |
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in plant cells, cytokinesis is accomplished by formation of
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-cell plate
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acetylcholine
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-binds strongly to acetylcholine receptor
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compared with fermentation the aerobic pathways of glucose metabolism produce
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-more ATP
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fermentation
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-does not require O2
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pyruvate
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-end product of glycolysis
-becomes reduced during fermentation -contains 3 atoms -is percursor of acetyl CoA |
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binary fission
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-bacterial cell gives rise to two genetically identical daughter cell
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human muscle cells, fermentation process produces
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-lactic acid
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krebs cycle
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-pathway that occurs in mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotes
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oxidation
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-loss of electron by ferrous ion to yield ferric ion
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homolog
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-one pair of chromosome with same genetic composition and sequence
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passing of electrons through series of protein molecules is called
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-electron transport chain
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glycogenesis
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-formation of glucose from glycolytic and citric acid intermediates
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meiosis
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-process that ensures that only one of each pair of chromosomes is included in a gamete
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karyotype
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-number, form, and type of chromosome found in cell
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during alcoholic fermentation, NAD+ is regenerated by reduction of acetaldehyde to
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-ethanol alcohol
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in general, the division of cell, that follows immediately after mitosis
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-cytokinesis
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replication of DNA
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-S phase
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cytokinesis
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-m phase
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occurs right before prophase
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-G2
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segregation of DNA
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-M phase
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includes G1 and G2
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-interphase
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transcription is the process by which
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-RNA molecule is synthesized from DNA template
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required for transcription
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-DNA template
-RNA polymerase -nucleoside triphosphates |
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strand of DNA with sequence 5'-ATTCCG-3' would have complimentary strand with sequence
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-3'-CGGAAT-5'
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DNA polymerase lengthens polynucleotide strand by
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-covalently linking new nucleotides to previously existing strand
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rules formulated by Erwin Chargaff
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-A=T and G=C in any molecule of DNA
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point mutation
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-type of mutation that consists of the insertion or deletion of single base in coding region of proteins
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correct order in excision repair of DNA
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-damaged bases are recognized
-part of single strand is excised -DNA polymerase 1 adds correct bases by 5' to 3' replication -DNA ligase seals new strand to existing DNA |
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role of DNA ligase in DNA replication is to
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-bond Okazaki fragments to one another
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a template of DNA strand has base sequence : 3'-GTC...CCA-5', what would be the sequence of the corresponding mRNA?
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-5'-CAG...GGU-3'
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single base changes in coding regions of proteins can cause what type of mutation?
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-missense
-nonsense -frame-shift -silent |
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constitutive gene
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-expressed in most cell types at fairly constant level
-ie. actin |
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UGU and UGC both code for cysteine. A change from UGU to UGC would thus be
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-silent mutation
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act in opposite ways
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-repressor and activator
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first repair of mistakes during DNA replication is made by
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-DNA polymerase
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a virus-encoded protein called TAT is
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-protein used by HIV to evade host cell defenses
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enzyme DNA ligase is required continuously during DNA replication because
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-fragments of lagging strand must be joined together
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stands that make up DNA are antiparallel
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-the 5' to 3' direction of one strand is counter to 5' to 3' direction of other strand
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flow of genetic information
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-DNA encodes information that is translated in RNA, and RNA encodes information that is translated into proteins
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potential points of regulation of gene expression
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-level of transcription
-level of processing mRNA -level of mRNA stability -level of translation |
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mutations
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-changes of nucleotide sequence of DNA that is passed on from one organism to another
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during replication the new DNA strand is synthesized
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-in both the 3' to 5' and 5' to 3' direction from replication fork
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RNA polymerase is a
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-protein
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semiconservative replication of DNA involves
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-each original strand acting as template for new strand
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translation
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-process by which information in nucleic acid sequence is used to direct production of specific chain of amino acids
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order of charged tRNA molecule move between 3 sites on ribosome
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-A,P,E
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3 codon in genetic code that specify amino acids are called
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-missense
-start -promoters -initiator |
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mRNA
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-molecules involve in transfer of genetic information from nucleus to cytoplasm
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tRNA
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-any particular tRNA binds to one and only one amino acid
-bind physically to mRNA -interacts with ribosomes |
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termination of transcription involves
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-terminator sequence
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anticodon 3'-AUC-5' would pair with codon
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-5'-UAG-3'
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involved in elongation step of translation
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-peptide transferase
-charged tRNA -ribosomes -amino acid site |
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which molecule transfers information from mRNA to protein?
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-tRNA
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when a eukaryotic polypeptide is being produced, the first amino acid is always
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-AUG
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telomeres
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-repetitive sequence at end of many chomosomes
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elongation
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-process within transcription that occurs after initiation
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pre-mRNA is modified into mature mRNA by addition of what at the 5' end and what at the 3' end
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-G cap
-A tail |
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modification also includes RNA splicing. what is removed
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-introns
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