Biochemistry 1

Front 1

Enzymes that use FAD

Back 1

Acyl-Coa dehydrogenase

Succinate dehydrogenase (complex II)

Mitochondrial glycerol-3-P dehydrogenase

Front 2

Enzymes that use PLP

Back 2

Glycogen phosphorylase

Amino transferases (alanine, aspartate, tyrosine)

Serine dehydratase

Cystathionine beta-synthase

Glutamate decarboxylase

Histidine decarboxylase

Front 3

Enzymes that consume GTP

Back 3

PEP carboxykinase

Front 4

Enzymes that produce GTP

Back 4

Succinyl-Coa synthetase

Front 5

Enzymes that consume TPP

Back 5

Pyruvate decarboxylase

Transketolase

Front 6

Enzymes that consume NADPH

Back 6

Aldose reductase with galactose

Ketoacyl-ACP reductase (rev)

Enoyl-ACP reductase

Overall palmitate synthesis

HMG-CoA reductase

Squalene synthase

NO synthase

Glutathione reductase

Ribonucleotide reductase

Dihydrofolate reductase

Heme oxygenase

Front 7

Enzymes that produce NADPH

Back 7

Glucose-6-P dehydrogenase (rev)

6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase

Malic enzyme

Hill reaction

Front 8

Enzymes that use

TPP

FAD

Lipoate

Back 8

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex

Branched chain alpha-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex

Front 9

Enzymes that use BIOTIN

Back 9

Pyruvate carboxylase

Propionyl-CoA carboxylase

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase

Front 10

Name the enzymes that during the degradation of glucose lead to cleavage of covalent bonds between two C-atoms.

Back 10

Aldolase (hexose -> two trioses)

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (release CO2)

Isocitrate dehydrogenase (release CO2)

alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (release CO2)

Front 11

Which enzymes do we have in the glycolysis but not gluconeogenesis?

Back 11

Hexokinase

PFK1

Pyruvate kinase

Front 12

Which enzymes do we have in the gluconeogenesis but not glycolysis?

Back 12

Pyruvate carboxylase

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

Glucose-6-phosphatase

Front 13

Which enzymes are needed for glycogen metabolism?

Back 13

Hexokinase

Phosphoglucomutase

UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase

Glycogen synthase (primer)

Glycogen branching enzyme

Front 14

In which reactions is citrate an allosteric activator for lipid metabolism? (enzyme)

Back 14

Acetyl-Coa carboxylase

HMG-CoA reductase

Front 15

In which reactions does citrate inhibit? (enzyme)

Back 15

Pyruvate kinase

PFK1

Front 16

Branching points in metabolic pathway:

Glucose-6-phosphate (pathways and enzymes)

Back 16

Glycolysis: phosphohexose isomerase

Pentose phospate pathway: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

Gluconeogenesis: glucose-6-phospatase

Glycogen pathway

Front 17

Branching points in metabolic pathway:

Fructose

Back 17

Muscle:

Hexokinase (can also phosphorylate fructose)

Liver:

No hexokinase, but GLUCOkinase, which is specific for glucose)

Instead:

Fructokinase -> fructose-1-P

Fructose-1-P aldolase -> glyceraldehyde + dhap

Triose kinase -> glyceraldehyde -> ga3P

Front 18

Fructosemia

Back 18

Fructose-1-P aldolase deficiency

No gluconeogenesis - hypoglycemia

Front 19

Fructosuria

Back 19

Fructokinase deficiency

Diarrhea

Front 20

Branching points in metabolic pathway:

DHAP

Back 20

Glycolysis

Gluconeogenesis

Enzymes:

Aldolase

Triose phosphate isomerase

Glycerol-3-P dehydrogenase

(All reactions are reversible)

Front 21

Mitochondrial enzymes that converts glucose to fatty acids

Back 21

Citrate lyase

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

Front 22

Branching points in metabolic pathway:

Pyruvate (enzymes)

Back 22

Lactate dehydrogenase -> Lactate

(Only in muscle)

Pyruvate decarboxylase -> Acetaldehyde

Pyruvate carboxylase -> Oxaloacetate

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex -> Acetyl-Coa

Malic enzyme -> Malate (Uses NADPH)

Alanine aminotransferase (In both muscle and liver)

Front 23

Branching points in metabolic pathway:

Oxaloacetate

Back 23

PEP carboxylase (rev)

Malate dehydrogenase (rev)

Aspartate aminotransferase (rev)

Consumes:

PEP carboxykinase (gluconeogenesis)

Citrate synthase (TCA)

Front 24

Reversible ammonia producing/consuming reactions

Back 24

Glutamate dehydrogenase

Glycine cleavage enzyme

Front 25

Irreversible ammonia consuming reactions:

Back 25

Glutamate synthase

Carbamoyl synthase

Front 26

Irreversible ammonia producing reactions:

Back 26

Desaminase (adenosine)

Serine/Threonine dehydratase

Glutaminase

Front 27

Why does adipose tissue have the enzyme PEP carboxykinase, even though gluconeogenesis only happens in kidney and liver?

Back 27

Glyceroneogenesis!

Glycerol-3-phosphate production

Front 28

Ketone calculation:

Acetoacetate (How many ATP?)

Back 28

20 ATP

Front 29

Ketone calculation:

Beta-hydroxybutyric (...)

Back 29

22.5 ATP

Front 30

In which tissues does gluconeogenesis happen?

Back 30

Kidney and liver

Front 31

Comparison of cori cycle and alanine cycle.

Similarities:

Back 31

Glucose goes back to muscle

Pyruvate is an acceptor molecule

(Picks up NH4+ -> produces alanine OR

Picks up proteins and electrons -> produces lactate)

(Pyruvate is produced in liver from alanine OR lactate. Enters gluconeogenesis and produces glucose -> returns to muscle)

Front 32

Comparison of cori cycle and alanine cycle.

Differences:

Back 32

Onset:

Cori cycle: Hypoxia

Alanine cycle: Starvation

Transporting molecule

Cori cycle: Lactate (is transported to liver from muscle)

Alanine cycle: Alanine (is transported to liver from muscle)

Front 33

Describe glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and benefits.

Back 33

RBC disorder. No pentose phosphate pathway, so no NADPH formation. Glutathione reductase doesn't work, so free radicals are not neutralized. Free radicals attack hemoglobin's globin chains -> globin precipitates as HEINZ BODIES. This alters the membrane deformability of RBCs.

BUT: It can protect against malaria - because malaria lives in RBCs (which are destroyed). Therefore there is a bigger prevalence of G6PDH deficiency in countries with malaria.

Front 34

Which molecules can transport toxic ammoniac?

Back 34

Glutamine (from brain), alanine (from muscle) and glutamate (other tissues)

Front 35

Components (?) needed purines

Back 35

CO2

Glycine

Aspartic acid

Glutamate

THF

Front 36

Components (?) needed for pyrimidines

Back 36

Aspartic acid

Carbamoyl phosphate

Front 37

Degradation of nucleotides:

Reaction

Inhibitor

Disease treated with inhibitor

Back 37

Xanthine oxidase

Inhibitor: allopurinol

Disease: Gout

Front 38

Helicase (DnaB protein)

Back 38

Unwinds DNA

Front 39

Primase (DnaG protein)

Back 39

Synthesizes RNA primers

Front 40

Single-stranded DNA-binding protein (SSB)

Back 40

Binds single-stranded DNA

Front 41

RNA polymerase

Back 41

Facilitates DnaA activity (DnaA - Recognizes ori sequence)

Front 42

DNA topoisomerase II

Back 42

Separates new and original strand in replication

Front 43

DNA ligase

Back 43

Links okazaki fragments

Front 44

Dam methylase

Back 44

Methylates (5')GATC sequences at ori

Front 45

Which activity does DNA polymerase III have?

Back 45

5'-3' Elongation activity

3'-5' Exonuclease activity

Front 46

Which activity does DNA polymerase I have?

Back 46

5'-3' Elongation activity

5'-3' Exonuclease activity

Front 47

DNA polymerase III function

Back 47

New strand elongation

Front 48

DNA polymerase I function

Back 48

Fills gaps

Front 49

Enzymes needed for Human Mismatch repair

Back 49

Dam methylase

MutH, MutL, MutS proteins

DNA helicase II

SSB

DNA polymerase III

Exonuclease I, VII, X

RecJ nuclease

DNA ligase

Front 50

Function of exonuclease in DNA repair

Back 50

Removes abnormal region

Front 51

Enzymes needed for Base excision repair

Back 51

DNA glycosylases

AP endonucleases

DNA polymerase I

DNA ligase

Front 52

Function of base excision repair

Back 52

Removal of damaged region and replacement by new DNA

Front 53

Function of DNA glycosylase

Back 53

Removes damaged base at AP-site

Front 54

Type of damage for nucleotide excision repair

Back 54

DNA lesions that cause large structural changes. E.g. pyrimidine dimers

Front 55

Nucleotide excision repair enzymes

Back 55

ABC exinuclease

DNA polymerase I

DNA ligase

Front 56

Reaction impaired in Phenylketonuria

Back 56

Phenylalanine hydroxylase

Phenylalanine -> Tyrosine

Front 57

Reactions impaired in Maple syrup urine disease

Back 57

Front 58

Reactions impaired in Tyrosinemia type I

Back 58

Fumarylacetoacetate

Fumarylacetoacetate -> Fumarate + acetoacetate

Front 59

Reactions impaired in Tyrosinemia type II

Back 59

Tyrosine aminotransferase

Front 60

Reactions impaired in Tyrosinemia type III

Back 60

Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase

Hydroxyphenylpyruvate -> Homogenisate

Front 61

Reactions impaired in Citrullinemia type I

Back 61

Argininosuccinate synthetase

Citrulline + Aspartate -> Argininosuccinate

Front 62

Reactions impaired in Homocystinuria

Back 62

Cystathione beta-synthase

Cysteine + Serine -> cystathione

Front 63

Reactions impaired in (Hyper)argininemia

Back 63

Arginase

Arginine -> ornithine + urea

Front 64

Reactions impaired in Lesch-Nyhan syndrome

Back 64

____ Phosphoribosyltransferase

Adenine + PRPP -> AMP + PPi

Hypoxanthine + PRPP -> IMP + PPi

Guanine + PRPP -> GMP + PPi

Front 65

Reactions impaired in Arginosuccinate lyase deficiency

Back 65

Argininosuccinate lyase

Arginosuccinate -><- Arginine + Fumarate

Front 66

Reactions impaired in beta-ketothiolase deficiency

Back 66

Acyl-Coa acetyltransferase

Ketoacyl-CoA -> Acyl-CoA + Acetyl-CoA

Front 67

Reactions impaired in Methylmalonic acidemia

Back 67

Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase

Methylmalonyl-Coa -> Succinyl-CoA

Front 68

Reactions impaired in propionic acidemia

Back 68

Propionyl-CoA carboxylase

Propionyl-CoA -> Methylmalonyl-CoA

Front 69

Reactions that leads to the formation of galactose metabolite potentially causing cataract

Back 69

Aldose reductase with galactose

Galactose -> Galactitol

Front 70

Name the enzymes that their defect can lead to galactosemia

Back 70

Gal-1-P Uridyltransferase

Galactokinase

UDP-Gal-4 epimerase

Front 71

What are the sources of propionyl-CoA in methylmalonic acidemia?

Back 71

Amino acids

Odd chained fatty acids

Propionate

Front 72

List the defected carboxylase enzymes in

multiple carboxylase deficiency and biotinidase deficiency

Back 72

Pyruvate carboxylase

Propionyl-CoA carboxylase

Acetyl-Coa carboxylase

Methylcrotonyl-Coa carboxylase

Front 73

List the possible causes of permanent congenital hypothyreosis?

Back 73

Thyroid gland dysgenesis

Defects in thyroid hormone synthesis or secretion

Defects in thyroid hormone transport

Central hypothyroidism

Front 74

Proteins required to initiate replication in prokaryotes

Back 74

DnaA protein

DnaB protein (Helicase)

DnaC protein

HU (Histone-like protein)

Primase (DnaG protein)

SSB

RNA polymerase

DNA gyrase (DNA topoisomerase II)

Dam methylase

Front 75

Proteins at prokaryotic replication fork

Back 75

SSB

DnaB protein (helicase)

Primase (DnaG protein)

DNA polymerase III

DNA polymerase I

DNA ligase

DNA gyrase (DNA topoisomerase II)

Front 76

Direct repair

Back 76

DNA photylases

O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase

AlkB protein

Front 77

Type of damage for mismatch repair

Back 77

Mismatches

Front 78

Typoe of damage for base excision repair

Back 78

Abnormal bases (uracil, hypoxanthine, xanthine), alkylated bases

Front 79

Type of damage for Direct repair

Back 79

DNA photylases:

Pyrimidine dimers

O6-Methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase:

O6-Methylguanine

AlkB protein:

1-Methylguanine, 3-methylcytosine

Front 80

Endonuclease

Back 80

Cleaves inside DNA

Front 81

Exonuclease

Back 81

Cleaves on either 5' or 3' end

Front 82

Exinuclease

Back 82

Special endonuclease. Cleaves twice - is a part of nucleotide excision repair (ABC exinuclease)

Front 83

Which metabolites are needed for the AlkB function?

Back 83

Succinyl-Coa

alpha-ketoglutarate

Front 84

DNA and RNA polymerase: Similarities

Back 84

Direction of synthesis: 5'-3'

Mechanism of elongation

Hydrolysis of pyrophosphate

Processivity

Front 85

What is special for RNA polymerase?

Back 85

No polyA og polyG

Don't need a primer

No nuclease activity

Template: one strand of DNA, certain genes

Front 86

What is the replication fork?

Back 86

The sites where DNA synthesis occurs

Front 87

What is another name for DNA gyrase, and where are they found?

Back 87

Topoisomerase II

Only prokaryotes

Front 88

Which DNA polymerases have proofreading ability?

Back 88

All of them

Front 89

What kind of activity is proofreading activity?

Back 89

Nuclease activity

Front 90

What is a protein with no enzymatic activity?

Back 90

SSB

Front 91

What is a nucleotide polymerase in the replication fork that doesn't have proofreading ability/nuclease activity?

Back 91

Primase - RNA polymerase

Front 92

Which molecule is responsible when there is a methylation of a cytosine group, and what kind of repair is it?

Back 92

AlkB protein

Direct repair

Front 93

Which molecule is responsible when there is a methylation of a guanine group, and what kind of repair is it?

Back 93

O6-Methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase

Point mutation

Front 94

Endonuclease

Back 94

Cleaves inside

Front 95

Exonuclease

Back 95

Cleaves either at 5' or 3' end

Front 96

Exinuclease

Back 96

Special endonuclease

Cleaves twice - part of nucleotide excision repair

Front 97

Which metabolites are needed for Alk-B protein process?

Back 97

Succinyl-CoA and alpha-ketoglutarate. The protein needs an acceptor of the methyl group. Direct repair enzyme.

Front 98

What is the direction of synthesis in transcription?

Back 98

5'-3'

Front 99

What determines transcription start sites?

Back 99

Promoter regions

Front 100

What are the prokaryotic promoter regions?

Back 100

-35

-10 (Pribnow box)

+1 (transcription start site)

Front 101

What are the eukaryotic promoter regions?

Back 101

TATA box

Front 102

What do the -10 region and TATA box have in common?

Back 102

AT rich regions

Front 103

How many RNA polymerases are needed in prokaryotic transcription?

Back 103

1

Front 104

What does the holoenzyme consist of and is it in prokaryotes or eukaryotes?

Back 104

alpha2betabetaprime = core enzyme

sigma subunit = subunit

prokaryotes

Front 105

What is the purpose of the holoenzyme?

Back 105

Aids in BINDING gene and STARTING transcription. Sigma hops off after a few nucleotides are added.

Front 106

What is the transcription machinery in eukaryotic transcription?

Back 106

3 RNA polymerases:

RNA Pol I: rRNA

RNA Pol II: mRNA

RNA Pol III: tRNA (+ 5S rRNA)

Front 107

What are transcription factors?

Back 107

Proteins that aid in transcription

Front 108

Termination in prokaryotes

Back 108

Rho-independent = intrinsic

-> Forms a hairpin loop (Inverted repeats)

Rho-dependent termination

-> rho protein travels along the RNA transcript until it reaches the RNA polymerase

Front 109

Post-transcriptional modifications

Back 109

ONLY IN EUKARYOTES!

mRNA:

1. 5'Cap: 7-methylguanosine

2. 3' Poly(A) tail = Poly Adenylate

3. Splicing

Front 110

5' Cap

Back 110

7-Methylguanosine

- Aids in transport from nucleus to cytoplasm

- Protects 5' end from degradation

Front 111

3' Poly(A) tail enzyme

Back 111

Polyadenylate polymerase

Protects 3' end from degradation

Front 112

Splicing

Back 112

By spliceosome - contains snRNP

- Lariat structure formed

- Introns are removed

- Exons are kept

Front 113

Where does transcription and translation happen in prokaryotes?

Back 113

Cytosol

At the same time

Front 114

Where does transcription and translation happen in eukaryotes?

Back 114

Transcription: Nucleus

Translation: Cytosol

- Different time

Front 115

What does it mean that 1 mRNA codes for 1 protein, and in prokaryotes or eukaryotes?

Back 115

Monocistronic

Eukaryotes

Front 116

What does it mean that 1 mRNA codes for

several proteins, and in prokaryotes or eukaryotes?

Back 116

Polycistronic

Prokaryotes

Front 117

Which human genes have no introns?

Back 117

Mitochondrial DNA

Histones

Front 118

What are the differences in mRNA in

eukaryotes

mitochondria

prokaryotes

Back 118

Eukaryotic: Cap, poly(A) tail

Mitochondrial: No cap, Poly(A) tail

Prokaryotic: No intron, no cap

Front 119

How does histone acetylation affect gene expression?

Back 119

It activates it (transcription)

Front 120

How does histone deacetylation affect gene expression?

Back 120

It inhibits it (transcription)

Front 121

Gene expression is also regulated by ...

Back 121

Epigenetic processes!

Front 122

What are epigenetic processes?

Back 122

GC-rich regions after promotor regions

Front 123

What kind of proteins catalyzes/regulates the rate of folding?

Back 123

Chaperones!

Front 124

What type of chaperones are there and what are their functions?

Back 124

Small chaperones -> activates folding + foldase

Lactin-like chaperones -> Quality control

Front 125

What is another thing chaperones regulate?

Back 125

Unfolded protein degradation

Front 126

Which enzymatic activities do we have during folding?

Back 126

Cleavage

Forming of secondary bonds

ATP hydrolysis (we need energy)

Front 127

Where is carbohydrate modification done?

Back 127

ER -> glycosylation

Golgi -> the rest

Front 128

What is the difference between glycation and glycosylation?

Back 128

Glycation:

Chemical process. E.g. too much glucose - affects hemoglobin - can be used diagnostically to determine blood glucose level.

Glycosylation:

Enzymatic process

Front 129

What are inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase?

Back 129

Statins

Front 130

Why does tumor development decrease in patients that take cholesterol medication (?) (STATINS)

Back 130

RAS oncogene is also activated in the membrane - mutation - can't cleave

CHECK THIS

Front 131

What is responsible for activation and attachment of amino acid to tRNA

Back 131

Aminoacyl-tRNAs (synthase?)

CHECK

Front 132

tRNA

Made by and process mechanisms

Back 132

RNA Pol III

Process mechanisms:

3'+5' ends are cleaved

Splicing

CCA arm attachment

Modification of nucleotides

Front 133

rRNA

Back 133

RNA pol I

RNA pol III - 5S rRNA

Front 134

What is a ribozyme?

Back 134

RNA molecules with enzymatic activity

Front 135

What kind of enzymatic activities does ribozymes have?

Back 135

Peptidyl transferase activity

Front 136

Modifications of rRNA

Back 136

Methylation

Pseudouridylated

Done by snoRNA

Front 137

Types of splicing of mRNA

Back 137

1. Spontaneous. External guanosine

2. Spontaneous. Intron has adenosine. Lasso formation.

3. Spliceosome dependent. (U1, U2, U4, U5, U6) by snRNP.

Front 138

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthase

Back 138

Proofreading activity

Front 139

When doesn't aminoacyl-tRNA synthase's proofreading ability work?

Back 139

If the side chain has the same solubility

e.g. leucine + isoleucine

Front 140

Mechanisms that ensure accuracy of translation

Back 140

Proofreading: aminoacyl-tRNA synthase

Proofreading: peptidyl-transferase

2nd genetic code

Wobble

Front 141

Which protein needs saline?

Back 141

Glutathione peroxidase

Front 142

Ligases in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Process.

Back 142

Prok: Adenylation (AMP donor is NADH+)

Euk: Adenylation (AMP donor is ATP)

Front 143

Enzymes of glycogen degradation

Back 143

- Glycogen phosphorylase

- Glycogen debranching enzyme

- Phosphoglucomutase

- Glucose-6-phosphatase

Front 144

Regulation of glycogen phosphorylase in muscle and liver

Back 144

Muscle:

Activators: epinephrine, high [Ca2+], high [AMP]

Liver:

Activators: Glucagon

Inhibitors: Insulin

Front 145

How is glycogen synthase activated?

Back 145

By dephosphorylation by PP1

Front 146

What activates and inhibits PP1?

Back 146

Activated by:

- glucose

-glc-6-p

-insulin

Inhibited by:

-glucagon

-epinephrine

Front 147

How is glycogen synthase inhibited?

Back 147

By phosphorylation by GSK3 (glycogen synthase kinase 3)

Front 148

What is the direct covalent regulator for GS and GPh?

Back 148

PP1

Front 149

Why isn't PKA the direct covalent regulator for GS and GPh?

Back 149

Direct for GS

Indirect for GPh

Front 150

What is the last common precursor for storage lipids and membrane phospholipids?

Back 150

Phosphatidic acid

Front 151

Which proteins are required to produce blood glucose from glucose-6-phosphate?

Back 151

G6P transporter

Glucose-6-phosphatase

Glucose transporter

Phosphate transporter

GLUT2

Front 152

Which enzymatic activity does the debranching enzyme have?

Back 152

It destroys the branches:

1. Transferase activity

2. Glycosidase activity

Front 153

How is glycogen metabolism regulated?

Back 153

Allosteric

Covalent

Hormonal

Gene expression

Glycogen targeting proteins

Front 154

What are the similarities of glucokinase and hexokinase?

Back 154

Both convert glucose into glucose-6-phosphate

Front 155

Glucokinase vs. hexokinase:

Substrate specificity

Back 155

Hk: Phosphorylates all hexoses

Gk: Only phosphorylates glucose

Front 156

Glucokinase vs. hexokinase:

Sensitivity/affinity

Back 156

Hk: High affinity for glucose

Gk: Low

Front 157

Glucokinase vs. hexokinase:

Location

Back 157

Hk: Muscle cells

Gk: Liver cells

Front 158

Both glucagon and insulin induce phosphorylation of Gm, but the effect is opposite. Explain why.

Back 158

Because Gm doesn't become inactive until it's been phosphorylated twice!

Front 159

What is the hormonal regulation of gluconeogenesis?

Back 159

Insulin -> INHIBIT

Glucagon, epinephrine, glucocorticoids -> ACTIVATE

Front 160

What is the effect of EPINEPHRINE on Glycogenolysis in liver and muscle?

Back 160

Both increase

Front 161

What is the effect of EPINEPHRINE on Glycolysis in liver and muscle?

Back 161

Liver: Decrease
Muscle: Increase

Front 162

What are the non-essential amino acids and what molecule do they derive from?

Back 162

Alanine <- alpha-ketoglutarate

Asparagine <- 3-phosphoglycerate

Aspartate <- oxaloacetate

Glutamate <- aspartate

Serine <- Pyruvate

Front 163

Glutamate biosynthesis

Back 163

Transamination of alpha-ketoglutarate

Glutamate dehydrogenase reaction

Glutamate synthase reaction

Front 164

What kind of activity is special for DNA

polymerase I in prokaryotes?

Back 164

In addition to 5'-3' elongation activity and 3'-5' exonuclease it has:

5'-3' EXONUCLEASE ACTIVITY!

Removal of RNA primers!

Front 165

What inhibits both pro- and eukaryotic RNA polymerases?

Back 165

Actinomycin D

Front 166

What is the function of Actinomycin D?

Back 166

Inhibits both pro- and eukaryotic RNA polymerases

Front 167

What is the substance that inhibits prokaryotic RNA pol beta subunit?

Back 167

Rifampicin

Front 168

What is the function of Rifampicin?

Back 168

Inhibits prokaryotic RNA polymerase beta subunit

Front 169

Which substance inhibits pol II and pol III in eukaryotes?

Back 169

alpha-amantin

Front 170

What is the function of alpha-amantin

Back 170

Inhibits eukaryotic Pol II and pol III

Front 171

Regulation of transcription

Back 171

Strength of promoter

+1: G or A

Activator/repressor molecules

sigma factors

Attenuation (premature termination of transcription)

Antitermination

Front 172

What is attenuation?

Back 172

Premature termination of transcription

Front 173

RNA Pol I

Location

Product

alpha-amantin sensitivity

Back 173

Nucleolus

rRNA,

18S, 28S, 5.8S rRNA

Resistant

Front 174

RNA Pol II

Location

Product

alpha-amantin sensitivity

Back 174

Extranucleolar

pre-mRNA, miRNA, snRNA

Highly sensitive

Front 175

RNA Pol III

Location

Product

Alpha-amantin sensitivity

Back 175

Nucleus, chromatin

tRNA, 5S rRNA, snRNA

Moderately sensitive

Front 176

Function of mRNA

Back 176

Encode the amino acid sequence of one or more polypeptides specified by a gene/a set of genes

Front 177

Function of tRNA

Back 177

Reads the information encoded in the mRNA and transfer an amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain in protein synthesis

Front 178

Function of rRNA

Back 178

Forms the core structure of the ribosome

Front 179

Function of miRNA

Back 179

MicroRNA

Post-transcriptional regulators

Front 180

Function of siRNA

Back 180

Small interfering RNA

Binds to mRNA and silence it

Front 181

Function of saRNA

Back 181

Small activating RNA

Induces long lasting gene activation

Front 182

Function of snRNA

Back 182

Small nuclear RNA

Processes pre-mRNA in the nucleus. Part of the spliceosome

Front 183

Function of snoRNA

Back 183

Small nucleolar RNA

Help process and assemble RNAs

Front 184

piRNA

Back 184

Piwi-interacting RNA

Transcriptional gene silencing of retrotransposons in germ line cells

Front 185

rasiRNA

Back 185

Repeat associated small interfering RNA

Silences transposons and retrotransposons

Establishes and maintains heterochromatin structure

Front 186

qiRNA

Back 186

Induced by DNA damage. When there is a DNA damage, it inhibits protein translation

Front 187

tmRNA

Back 187

Transfer messenger RNA

Rescues ribosomes. Facilitates degradation of non-normal mRNA

Front 188

Vitamin B1

Back 188

Thiamine

TPP

Front 189

Vitamin B2

Back 189

Riboflavin.

Flavin mononucleotide = FAD

Front 190

FMN

Back 190

In complex I

Front 191

Vitamin B3

Back 191

Niacin.

NAD and NADPH

Front 192

B5

Back 192

Pantothenic acid

CoA

Front 193

B6

Back 193

Pyridoxyl

PLP

Front 194

B7

Back 194

Vitamin H = Folic acid

Glycine cleavage

Nucleotide biosynthesis

Front 195

B12

Back 195

Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase

Methionine beta-synthase

Front 196

Vitamin C

Back 196

Hydroxylation

Collagen (if deficient -> scurvy)

Liver (detoxification)

Synthesis of carnitine

Front 197

Vitamin D

Back 197

Not a vitamin (we can produce it)

Cholesterol in liver -> skin -> liver -> kidney -> 1,25dihydroxycalciferol = calcitriol

Front 198

Which receptors does hormones have?

Back 198

Nuclear receptors

Front 199

Where is the attachment of Receptor and hormone in Vitamin D?

Back 199

In the nucleus

Front 200

What is the coreceptor of Vitamin D?

Back 200

RXR Receptor

Front 201

Which ligands have RXR receptor?

Back 201

Retinoic acid

Thyroid hormones

Vitamin D

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Vitamin K

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Filakinan

Blood coagulation

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Vitamin E

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Binds free radicals

Only lipid-soluble antioxidant

Sperm maturation (If deficient -> sterility)

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Vitamin A

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Vision.

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Insulin excretion channels

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Ion channels in beta cells: GLUT2

Na+ gated K+ channels (ATP-dependent)

Voltage dependent K+ channels

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Endocrine hormones

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Insulin

Glucagon

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Paracrine

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Eicosanoid

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Autocrine

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Interleukins -> regulate cytokines

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How to write poly(a) tail in an exam?

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Poly adenylate tail