Biochem Test 3

Front 1

What are the 5 biological functions of carbohydrates?

Back 1

1. they are metabolic precursors of amino acids, nucleotides and lipids
2. provide energy to cells, through the breakdown of carbohydrates
3. carbohydrates are components of the cell wall and extracellular matrix
4. components of glycolipids(common component of biological membranes)
5. components of glycoproteins(molecular recognition such as immunoglobin)

Front 2

What are the three major classes of carbohydrates?

Back 2

1. monosaccharides
2. oligosaccharides
3. polysacchrides

Front 3

What are two types of monosaccharides?

Back 3

1. aldose - contain an aldehyde functional group
2. ketose - contain a ketone functional group

Front 4

What are the unit and linkage, reducing or non reducing, and the enzyme for sucrose?

Back 4

unit and linkage: Glucose-alpha-1,2-fructose
non-reducing
and enzyme: sucrase

Front 5

What are the unit and linkage, reducing or non reducing, and the enzyme for lactose?

Back 5

unit and linkage: Glacatose-beta-1,4-glucose
reducing
enzyme: lactase

Front 6

What are the unit and linkage, reducing or non reducing, and the enzyme for maltose?

Back 6

unit and linkage: Glucose-alpha-1,4-glucose
reducing
enzyme:maltase

Front 7

What are the unit and linkage, reducing or non reducing, and the enzyme for cellobiose?

Back 7

unit and linkage: Glucose-beta-1,4-glucose
reducing
enzyme: unknown

Front 8

a covalent bond that holds a carbohydrate to another group that can or cannot be another sugar

Back 8

glycosidic bond

Front 9

What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Starch?

Back 9

plants
unit and linkage: alpha-1,4-glucose untis
alpha-1,6-glucose units
function: energy storage in plants

Front 10

What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Glycogen?

Back 10

human/animals
unit and linkage:
alpha-1,4-glucose units
alpha-1,6-glucose units
function: energy storage in humans in the liver

Front 11

What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Dextran?

Back 11

bacteria/yeast
unit linkage:
alpha-1,6-glucose units
alpha-1,2 or alpha-1,3 or alpha-1,4 glucose units
function: energy storage

Front 12

What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Cellulose?

Back 12

plants
unit linkage: beta-1,4-glucose units
function: structure in plant cell wall

Front 13

What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Chitin?

Back 13

insects, spiders, crustacean
unit linkaged: Beta-1,4-N-acetyl-glucosamine units
function: exoskeleton, structure, and strength

Front 14

What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Peptidoglycan?

Back 14

bacterium
unit linkage: [NAG-MAN]n
function: bacterial cell wall, structure and strength

Front 15

What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Glycosaminoglycan?

Back 15

Human/animal
unit linkage:dissacharide units
function: extracellular matrix, strucutre and strength

Front 16

consist of carbohydrates linked to other types of bimolecular, could be linked to proteins, amino acids, lipids, and peptides

Back 16

glycoconjugates

Front 17

What are the three major types of glycoconjugates?

Back 17

1. glycoproteins
2. peptidoglycans
3. glycolipids

Front 18

proteins with covalently attached sugar units, either bonded via OH group of Ser or Threonine or through the amide N2 of asparagine

Back 18

glycoproteins

Front 19

What are major types of glycoproteins? (know amino acids participating in the covalent bond)

Back 19

1. o-linked : carbohydrate linked to proteins htrough (ser and thr) has -OH group, and -O will link to the sugar
2. N-linked: carbohydrate linked to sproteins through (asn) nitrogen will link to sugar
3. proteoglycan: O or N linked

Front 20

Understand the ABO blood group:
O:
A:
B:
AB:

Back 20

O: o antigen = H antigen
A: a antigen + o antigen
B: b antigen + o antigen
AB: a antigen + b antigen + o antigen
H, A, B antigens are glycoproteins. O can donate to A, but A cannot donate to O. A can donate to AB but AB cannot donate A or B

Front 21

proteins that have carbohydrate bonding sites

Back 21

lectins

Front 22

What is an example of lectins?

Back 22

H5N2 (influenza) ; hemaglutin

Front 23

Glycolysis occurs in the _____

Back 23

cytosol/cytoplasm

Front 24

glycolysis is a ___________ found in nearly all organisms

Back 24

energy conversion process

Front 25

Glycolysis produces ____________

Back 25

3 and 6 carbon metabolites

Front 26

Glycolysis does not require _______

Back 26

oxygen

Front 27

Arthur Harden and Otto Meyernot discover the glycolytic pathway in ____

Back 27

1929

Front 28

What are the fates of pyruvate?

Back 28

The fate of pyruvate happens in 4 directions:
1. pyruvate dehydrogenase
2. pyruvate carboxylase
3. pyruvate decarboxylase + alcohol dehydrogenase
4. lactate dehydrogenase

Front 29

___ will regulate the glycolytic pathway. There are 3 steps that are one directional reaction, which are regulated.

Back 29

enzymes

Front 30

Hormones in the glycolitic pathway: insulin signaling pathway, activate glucose transporters under ______ blood glucose conditions which transport glucose from blood into cells; ____ is released from pancrease into blood when blood glucose levels are low

Back 30

high
Glucagon

Front 31

Allosteric regulation of the glycolitic pathways: _______ , ______, and _______.

Back 31

hexokinase, phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase

Front 32

pasteur effect of the glycolitic pathway: the slowing of ______ glycolysis in the presence of oxygen in yeast and muscle

Back 32

glycolysis

Front 33

How does mannose enter into the glycolytic pathway?

Back 33

fructose 6-phosphate

Front 34

how does galactose enter the glycolitic pathway?

Back 34

glucose 6-phosphate

Front 35

how does fructose enter the glycolitic pathway?

Back 35

glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate to Phosphoenoryuvate

Front 36

____ occurs mainly in the liver and kidneys

Back 36

gluconeogenesis

Front 37

Gluconeogenesis consists of ___reactions: the 1st reaction will occur in the ______. The rest of the reactions will occur in the _______

Back 37

11
mitochondria
cytosol/cytoplasm

Front 38

Explain the process of gluconeogenesis

Back 38

1. starvation for 4-16 hours: blood glucose will decrease and glycogen will break down and become glucose and the blood glucose will increase
2. starvation for 16-24 hours: the liver glycogen will be used up so the blood glucose levels will decrease so through non-carbohydrates will convert to glucose ; example amino acid (alanine) converted to sugar

Front 39

What are the precursors for gluconeogenesis?

Back 39

amino acids, part of lipid, and lactate

Front 40

______ is related to two different cells, mucsle and liver

Back 40

cori cycle

Front 41

in the cori cycle _____ from the peripheral tissues goes to the liver and is made into glucose ; the glucose can then go back to the peripheral tissues

Back 41

lactate

Front 42

The liver uses ____ for energy?

Back 42

lipids

Front 43

What is the cori cycle?

Back 43

it is related to muscle and liver cells; lactate from peripheral tissues goes to the liver and is made into glucose the glucose can go back to the peripheral tissues ; the liver uses lipids for energy

Front 44

What is the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP)?

Back 44

the majority of human tissues/organs have PPP but not the human brain and muscle ; ppp occurs in the cytosol/cytoplasm ; there are three major products: NADPH (can provide energy), Ribose (5-phosphate group)-builds nucleotides which buuilds RNA and DNA; and ATP

Front 45

The majority of human tissues and organ have the PPP but not _______ and _____

Back 45

human brain and muscle

Front 46

the pentose phosphate pathway occurs in the _____

Back 46

cytosol /cytoplasm

Front 47

What are the 3 major products of the pentose phosphate pathway?

Back 47

1. NADPH (can provide energy)
2. ribose (5-phosphate group) -builds nucleotides
3. ATP

Front 48

Understand the 3 directions of the regulation of the pentose phosphate pathway.

Back 48

Direction 1: products are NADPH and Ribose 5-phosphate
Direction 2: Products are maximal NADPH
Direction 3: products are NADPH + ATP

Front 49

What are the two imporant enzymes of glycogen synthesis and degradation?

Back 49

glycogen phosphylase and glycogen synthase

review diagram

Front 50

the citric acid cycle or TCA cycle (tricarboyxlic acid cycle) is also called the Krebs cycle; citric acid = citrate (___ carbons)

Back 50

6 carbons

Front 51

______ is the central metabolic hub of the cell

Back 51

citric acid cycle

Front 52

_____ is the central energy hub of the cell

Back 52

citric acid cycle

Front 53

about _____ of the energy is from glycolysis, TCA cycle, electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation

Back 53

90%

Front 54

The cirtic acid cycle occurs in the _____

Back 54

mitochondria

Front 55

How is pyruvate converted to acetyl-CoA and how is it regulated?

Back 55

pyruvate is converted to Acetyl-CoA through pyruvate dehydrogenase, producing a relase of CO2 and NADH

Front 56

What is the input summary of the citric acid cycle?

Back 56

2 CO2
1 GTP
3 NADH
1 FADH2

Front 57

What is the output summary of the citric acid cycle?

Back 57

1 acetly CoA
1 GDP + Pi
3 NAD +
1 FAD

Front 58

expalin and show Why is the citric acid cycle the central metabolic hub of a cell?

Back 58

refer to diagram

Front 59

The citric acid cycle is the central metabolic hub of a cell. It occurs in bacteria, fungi, plants, yeast, and animals as well as humans

Back 59

true

Front 60

How many ATP and NADH are generated during the catabolism of one molecule of glucose?

Back 60

1 NADH = 2.5 ATP
1 FADH2= 1.5 ATP

32 ATP per glucose

Front 61

explain why one NADH can be converted to 2.5 ATPs and one FADH can be converted to 1.5 ATPs

Back 61

2 e- = 10 H +
4 H+ = 1 ATP
10+H/ 4 H+= 2.5 --> NADH
6H+/4H+= 1.5 --> FADH2

Front 62

bacteria, fungi, and plants have the _________; during seed germination , energy is required. Lipid will convert to fatty acid then converted to acetyl-coA then will enter into the _______

Back 62

glycooxylate pathway

Front 63

What two enzymes does the glyoxylate pathway require?

Back 63

isocitrate lyase and malate synthase

Front 64

the glyoxylate pathway occurs in ______ in some plants and it occurs in the _____ of bacteria and fungi

Back 64

glyoxysome
cytosol

Front 65

What are the major functions of the citric acid cycle?

Back 65

the cycle is the central metabolic hub of the cell. It is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules: amino acids, fatty acids & carbohydrates. The cycle is the central energy conversion hub of the cell. It removes electrons from acetyl CoA and uses them to form NADH and FADH2 (high energy electron carriers)

Front 66

What is the overview of electron transport and ATP synthesis?

Back 66

1 NADH= 2.5 ATPs ( glycolysis and TCA cycle: 10 NADH/glucose)

1 FADH2= 1.5 ATPs (2 FADH2/glucose )

Fate of NADH and FADH2 is to genreate ATP

Electron transport and ATP synthesis occurs in the mitochondira

Electron transport --> H+ gradient --> ATP synthesis
The uiltimate aceptor of e- is oxygen

Front 67

Understand the electron transport chains in complex I, II, III, and IV and be able to draw

Back 67

it requires complexes (proteins(enzymes)) and electron carriers which except and donate electrons they move from one complex to another and back

Front 68

Understand why one NADH could convert to 2.5 ATP and one FADH2 or QH2 could convert to 1.5 ATP

Back 68

1 NADH = 2 e- = 10 H+ x 1 ATP/4H = 2.5 ATP

1 FADH2= 2 e- = 6 H+ x 1 ATP/4H= 1.5 ATP

Front 69

explain the mechanism how ATP synthase convert ADP and Pi to ATP using the proton gradient

Back 69

ADP, Pi bind to an open site; inward passage of protons, conformation change, ATP synthesis from ADP and Pi; ATP released from open site, ADP and Pi form ATP in the tight site.

Front 70

Complex V is also called ATP synthase = ______

Back 70

f0/fi ATP synthase

Front 71

The ATP synthase complex requires about _____ proteins

Back 71

22-26

Front 72

How is ATP exported to the cytoplasm from mitochondrion?

Back 72

transport of ATP, ADP and Pi across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The adenine nucleotide translocase carries out unidirectional exchange of ATP for ADP (antiport) .
The symport of Pi and H+ is electroneutral

Front 73

How is NADH generated in cytoplasm imported into mitochondrion?

Back 73

through the transport proteins ; aspartate --> oxaloacitate

Front 74

What are reactive oxygen species (ROS)?

Back 74

are toxic to the cell, so the cells needs to be able to remove it
Radicals (free radicals) are atoms, molecules, or ions with unpaired electrons or an open shell configuration. Free radicals may have positive negative or zero chanrge. With some exceptions, these unpaired electrons cause radicals to be highly chemically reactive

Front 75

What are the 4 possible ROS?

Back 75

1. superoxide radical (o2.-): O2 + e --> O2.-
2. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2): 2H+ + 2O2.- --> O2 + H2O2
3. Hydroxyl radical (.OH) : Fe2+ + H2O2 --> Fe 3+ + .OH + OH-
4. Singlet O2 (1 O2: one e- jumps to superior orbital following absorption of energy): 2H+ + 2 O2.- --> O2 + H2O2

Front 76

What are common antioxidants used to remove ROS?

Back 76

superoxidase dismutase
catalase
glutathione peroxidase
Vitamin E
Vitamin C
Beta-carotene

Front 77

What are the general functions of lipids?

Back 77

lipids can either be hydrophobic or amphipathic ; and they have a low solubility in water

Front 78

What are the 6 biological functions of lipids?

Back 78

1. energy storage
2. biological membrane components
3. good thermal insulators
4. surface protection function
5. steroid hormones
6. cellular recognitions

Front 79

What are the major classes of lipids (4)?

Back 79

1. fatty acids
2. steriods
3. lipid vitamins
4. terpenes

Front 80

What are the major classes of fatty acids (5)?

Back 80

1. eicosaniods
2. glycerophospholipids
3. triacylglycerols
4. waxes
5. sphingolipids

Front 81

What is the meaning of essential fatty acids?

Back 81

means that you have to acquire it form the diet

Front 82

What are the biological functions of triacylglycerols?

Back 82

used for energy storage in humans, and it protects the body temperature

Front 83

What is the biological function of glycerophospholipids?

Back 83

it is a cell membrane component; the head is polar and the tail is non polar

Front 84

What are the 6 major types of phospholipases?

Back 84

1. sphingosine
2. ceramides
3. sphingomyelins
4. cerebrosides
5. galactosylcerebrosides
6. gangliosides

Front 85

_____ an 18 carbon amino alcohol

Back 85

sphingosine

Front 86

_____ amide linkages of fatty acids to the nitrogen of sphingosine

Back 86

ceramides

Front 87

____ phosphocholine attached to C-1 of ceramide

Back 87

sphingomyelins

Front 88

______ glycosphingolipids with one monosaccharide residue attached via glycosidic linkage to C-1 of ceramide

Back 88

Cerebrosides

Front 89

_______ a single b-D-galactose as a polar head group

Back 89

Galactosylcerebrosides

Front 90

____ contain oligosaccharide chains with Nacetyl-neuraminic acid (NeuNAc) attached to a ceramide

Back 90

gangliosides

Front 91

What is the biological function of sphingolipids?

Back 91

nerve cell, membrane component

Front 92

What are the biological funcitons of cholesterol?

Back 92

cell membrane component
precursors of steriod hormone
component of lipoproteins

Front 93

What are the major components of cell membranes?

Back 93

Lipid bilayer (phospholipids)
Membrane proteins
1. peripheral membrane protein
2. integral membrane protein
3. lipid-anchored protein

Front 94

What are the biological functions of cell membrane?

Back 94

to separate the cell from the environment: help acumulate nutrients inside the cell, barrier to toxic molecules, carry out energy transduction, modulate signal transduction, facilitate cell mvoement, assist in reproduction

Front 95

What are spontaneously formed lipid structures in water?

Back 95

monolayers, micelles, bilayers, vesicles

Front 96

What are the major types of membrane proteins?

Back 96

transport functions and receptors

Front 97

What are major types of membrane transportation?

Back 97

Passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport

Front 98

simplest transport process, molecules move across membrane without the help of any specific transport system, molecules mvoe across membrane and set up equilibrium of concentration ; it is driven by entropy considerations

Back 98

passive diffusion

Front 99

requires specific memrbane transport proteins ; since the number of such memrbane transport proteins is limited they can be saturated if the concentration of molecules to be trasported is high; it has the characteristic property of saturation at high substrate concentration, does not rely upon such transport proteins and does not display such saturation at high substrate concentrations ; solute flows only in the favored direction

Back 99

facilitated diffusion

Front 100

some trasport must occur such that solutes flow against thermodynamic potention; energy input drives transport; energy source and trsport machery are coupled ; energy source may be ATP, light or a concentration gradient ; in the case of ion gradient , a separate active transport process must be in place to produce such a gradient in the first place

Back 100

active transport

Front 101

What are the energy sources for active transport?

Back 101

may be ATP, light or a concentration gradient

Front 102

What are the functions of lipoproteins?

Back 102

main function is transport; lipid will bind to the protein and will be water soluble, able to transport lipids in the blood vessel from cell to cell

Front 103

What are the types of lipoproteins?

Back 103

chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins, low density lipoproteins, high density lipoproteins