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36 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Mendel’s Success because?
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Obtained True Breeding strains 2. Restricted his examination to one or only a few pairs of contrasting traits traits 3. Kept very accurate records 4. His studies laid the groundwork for the field of genetics ( Father of Genetics)
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Monohybrid Cross examines? process?
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only one pair of contrasting traits;
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Monohybrid cross results: p1? f1? f2?
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p1: parents are homozygous; f1- all show dom; f2: ratio is 3:1, thus 1/4 are homo-Recessive
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Principles of Inheritance
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1. Unit Factors exist in pairs 2. Dominance/Recessive 3. Segregation of alleles
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Test Cross to? how? thus?
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establish genotype of dom phenotype; mate to homo-recessive; 1:1 ratio
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Dihybrid ratio?
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9/16: 3/16: 3/16: 1/16
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dihybrid test cross phenotype ratio GGWw ?
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1/2 y,r :1/2 y,w
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dihybrid test cross phenotype ratio GgWw?
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1/4:1/4:1/4:1/4
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dihybrid test cross phenotype ratio GgWW?
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1/2 y,r :1/2 g,r
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Independent Assortment
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Characteristics that are controlled by different genes will assort independent of all
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Product Law
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If events occur simultaneously, but independent of each other, the combined probability of the outcomes is equal to the product of their individual probabilities
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Forked-Line Method
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alternative to Punnett squares and is based on our experimental observations and the law of probability
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Sum Law
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Combined probability of two or more mutually exclusive events is the sum of their probabilities
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Binomial Theorem
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A way of determining the probability of alternative outcomes in a number of trials; Theorem is p=(a+b)n
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Pedigree Analysis
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Way to determine the fashion in which a gene controlling a trait is inherited when a large number of offspring are not produced
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Codominance
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Condition in which the phenotypic effects of a single gene’s alleles are
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Incomplete Dominance
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When the expression of the heterozygous phenotype is distinct (often an intermediate) to that of the parents; displays 3 distinct (possible) phenotypes; phenotype ratio of 1:2:1
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Penetrance:
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Percentage of individuals that show at least some degree of expression of the mutant phenotype
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Expressivity:
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Reflects the range of expression of a particular mutant phenotype; Can range from full expression to no expression of the trait
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Cell Cycle checkpoints exist
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G1/S-monitors size and DNA integrity 2. G2/M-Physiologic conditions of cell and DNA replication and repair 3. M-Formation and attachment of spindle fibers
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Results of checks
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Enter Mitosis 2. Arrest and Repair DNA 3. Apoptosis if Repair is impossible or to time consuming
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Cell Cycle G2 (Second Gap)
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Cells grow Volume doubles by end G2; Prepares for cell division
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M (Mitosis)
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Cells divide in to daughter cells; Karyokinesis (DNA) and Cytokinesis (cytoplasm) occurs
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G0
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Cells withdraw from cell cycle
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Problems Faced by Cells
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1.Completion Problem (How to make sure that the previous cellular events are finished before the next step can begin?) 2. Alternation Problem (How to make sure cell coordinates cycles of growth and division) 3. External factors can alter processes (Presence or absence of Nutrients/Chemicals)
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Mutations may lead to “missed” checkpoints
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Example: Tumor suppressor gene-p53 • p53 is mutated in a high percentage of human cancers
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Mitosis
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Process by which somatic cells divide ; Occurs after DNA has been replicated; Involves one division of the nucleus/DNA (karyokinesis) and cytoplasm
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Prophase
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Chromatin condenses to form C-somes ; DNA becomes visible ; Sister chromatids joins at their centromere; Nuclear membrane breaks down ; Spindle fibers form; Extends from centrioles toward middle of cell ; Made of microtubules
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Metaphase Two Phases:
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Prometaphase: C-some movement ; Metaphase: C-some configuration after move
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metaphase events:
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Spindle fibers connect to C-somes at Kinetochore (Centromere); C-somes align on the Metaphase Plate (Equatorial Plane) ; C-somes are arranged randomly
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Anaphase
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Sister chromatids are pulled apart; MTs pull from centromere in opposite directions (molecular motor proteins); Provides each daughter cell with a complete and identical set of C-somes ; Division of DNA is complete (Karyokinesis)
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Telophase
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Division of the cytoplasm (Cytokinesis); “Pinching off” caused by contractile proteins that migrate to the intercellular membrane; Reversal of Prophase ; C-somes de-condense ; Nucleus reforms ; Spindle fibers disappear
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Meiosis
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Process by which germ cells (gametes) are produced ;Occurs after DNA replication (S phase) ; Cells contain 1⁄2of the DNA content (Haploid); 2 cytoplasm and 2 nucleus/DNA divisions; Exactly one member of each C-some given to daughter cells ; Allows for genetic variability
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Meiosis I
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Reductional Division: Reduce the number of centromeres by half; Homologous C-somes Synapse ;Crossing over occurs; Homologous C-somes separate
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Meiosis II
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Equaltional Division: Number of centromeres remains the same ; Sister chromatids separate into the resulting gametes ; May produce 4 gametes that have exactly one copy (haploid) of each C-some
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Prophase 1
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Chromatin condenses to C-somes ; Homologous C-somes Synapsis ; Crossing over: Synapsed C-somes; 5 Subphases ; Leptonema
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