Bio180 From After Exam2 2/21-3/10

Front 1

What types of evidence can help researchers decide whether a trait is ancesteral or more recent?

Back 1

Outgroup comparison, closely parameterized observations to focused species, based often on morphology, which may help narrow down the region on the timeline to which it belongs. Fossil dating, which may even be used in collaboration w/ outgroup comparison. Mere comparison of traits and possibilities of derivation, which may be more specialized(some may serve as exceptions, however, like the human tailbone).

Front 2

Is it correct to claim that traits always become more complex or specialized over time? Why or why not?

Back 2

This seems to be the trend, however, there are many exceptions, for ex whales and snakes have vestigial limbs-they became "more simple." It is important to keep in mind the general use of the terms "complex" though b/c those terms do not necessarily imply better fitness to the environment.

Front 3

List the traits for ea of the following species with regards to: socialism, walking-methods, dwelling places, sexual maturity; Neanderthals, Orangutans, Pygmy chimps, humans, Gorillas, Common chimps.

Back 3

1)Social, bipedal, ground dweller, delayed sex mat.
2)Solitary, fist-walker, tree dweller, early sex mat.
3)Social, knuckle-walker, tree and ground dweller, delayed sex mat.
4)Social, bipedal, ground dweller, delayed sex mat.
5)Social, knuckle-walker, ground dweller, early sex mat.
6)Social, knuckle-walker, tree and ground dweller, delayed sex mat.

Front 4

What is the characteristic that defines the monophyletic group Hominins?

Back 4

bipedalism.

Front 5

What species/phylas does the group of Apes encompass?

Back 5

After the Old world Monkeys on the tree, includes Gibbons, orangs, gorillas, humans, bonobos, to the common chimp.

Front 6

What species/phyla does the group of GreatApes/Hominids encompass?

Back 6

Orangs, gorillas, humans, bonobos, to the common chimp.

Front 7

From where do the Gibbons and the Orangs originate?

Back 7

SE Asia

Front 8

What type of feeders are the Gorillas?

Back 8

strict vegitarians

Front 9

What are the Humans,Bonobos and Common chimps dubbed?

Back 9

Hominins

Front 10

Gorillas and chimps are native to?

Back 10

Africa

Front 11

What is the social structure of the orangutans according to current observation?

Back 11

solitary if resources are scarce, highly social if in good habitats.

Front 12

What is the social structure of Gorillas and chimps?

Back 12

Highly social, consisting of related females and unrelated males.

Front 13

What did the structures of walking, socialism, feeding, and tools look like at the node for hominins?

Back 13

1)knuckle-walking
2)social groups
3)probably omnivorous
4)sophisticated tool use-wood/twig tools.

Front 14

The gracile australopithecines consist of?
What morphological data supports that they walked upright?

Back 14

1)Australopithecus afarensis: square jaw(ape-like), africa, 3.9-3Ma
2)Australopithecus africanus: round jaw (H.sap-like); large teeth, jaws, s.africa, 2.8-2.4Ma

3)hole in back of skull points downward.

Hint 14

1)Laetoli footprints, in Tanzania-trackway in Ash. no handprints.
2)Lucy
3)Braincase:400-500cm^3
4)F:~1.1m; M:1.4-1.5m

Front 15

What is/was the basic trend concerning bigger braincases?

Back 15

=bigger brains=more smarts.

Front 16

What species are included in the Robust autstralopithecines?

Back 16

1)Paranthropus aethiopicus:sagittal crest, kenya, F:~1.1m; M:~1.4-1.5m, 2.7-1.9Ma
2)Paranthropus boisei:Molars 4x H. sapiens(nutcracker-man), kenya, F:~1.3m; M:~1.6m, 2.3-1.4Ma
*sagittal crest-attachment for muscles to jaw(massive).
3)Paranthropus robustus: large sygomatic arch, s.africa, F:~1.1m; M:~1.5m, 2-1Ma

Hint 16

nutcracker-man
Braincases:410-530cm^3

Front 17

Which two species are possibly variants of the same species and concern the question as to whether or not they are actually australopithecus, not Homo?

Back 17

1)Homo rudofensis: braincase(750cm^3), F:?m; M:?m, stone tools;animal bones w/marks indicating butchery (not necessarily hunting), kenya, 2.4-1.8Ma
2)Homo halbilis: Braincase(650cm^3), F:~1.2m; M:~1.3M, stone tools;animal bones w/ marks indicating butchery, kenya, 1.9-1.6Ma

Front 18

What are the four undisputed humans species (genus Homo)?

Back 18

1)Homo erectus(africa & asia): braincase(900cm^3)early;1100 late, F:?m; M:~1.7m, extensive tools; fire?, africa, caucasus, china, java at 1.7 Ma?, 1.7-.3Ma, face flatter, braincase bigger.
2)Homo heidelbergensis: braincase(1200cm^3), a regional variant of H. neanderthalensis?, fire?, africa, .6-.2Ma
3)Homo neanderthalensis: first found in germany, braincase(1450cm^3), F:?; M:1.68m, prepared graves, europe, caucasus, .3-.03Ma
4)Homo sapiens: braincase(Cro-Magnon 1350cm^3; now 1200cm^3), F:?; M:?, grave w/2 other adult men, adult woman, infant, animal bones, jewelry, stone tools, europe, asia, africa, .1Ma-present.

Front 19

What could the downside of extrordinarly large brains be (like in the neanderthals)?

Back 19

childbirth mortality

Front 20

What is some evidence against the idea that neanderthals interbred with homo sapiens?

Back 20

DNA doesnt trace back to it.

Front 21

What three species are considered as a separate monophyletic group?

Back 21

p.robustus, paranthropus boisei, paranthropus aethiopicus

Front 22

What are some physical trends that occurred during the evolution of the hominins?

Back 22

1)body size (height) went up
2)Posture-more erect/bipedalism
3)braincase volume-recent reduction but in past, brain size increased dramatically more with body size increase in comparison to the arthros.
4)facial features-flatter faces
5)tool use-sophisticated use
6)other aspects of culture-burial, passing on learned concepts.

Front 23

How do you calculate 'normalizing weight?'

Back 23

[(end wt-start wt)/(start wt)]*100

Front 24

How do you calculate 'efficiency?'

Back 24

[(end wt cat-start wt cat)/(start wt food-end wt food)]

Front 25

What is the defining trait unique to homo sapiens?

Back 25

Pendant breasts in adult females

Front 26

What are some pieces of evidence standing against language use as the defining trait unique to homo sapiens?

Back 26

1)sign language in chimps
2)poss speech in neanderthals

Front 27

Why does biodiversity matter?

Back 27

observation; lots of species are going extinct.

Front 28

With regards to human benefits in biodiversity, name 4.

Back 28

1)Production of goods and services:a. for forest products b. food: wild foods, fisheries
2)Ecosystem services ('life support'): a. flood control
b. soil erosion c. chemical cycling (esp C,N,P) d. water; cleanliness, availability.
3)"Life fulfilling conditions": beauty, wilderness, serenity (buy and sell)
4)Genetic repositories(alleles-for resistence): *interest in sponges b/c they carry so many toxins, fungi. a. drugs=>taxol=>pacific yew trees (in old growth forests)
b. crops=> wild relatives.

Front 29

What was the big question in studies on north american praire plants?

Back 29

Does plant species richness (# of species present) affect productivity?

Front 30

Define "ecosystem'

Back 30

all of the organisms in an area, along w/ non-living (abiotic) components.

Front 31

Define "species diversity"

Back 31

# of species and their relative abundance.

Front 32

Define "functional group"

Back 32

plants wi/ distinctive function, timing of growth, or growth habitat(what it invests in).

Front 33

In the experiment that U of Minnesota did with 32 prairie species in 5 functional groups, the results showed that as species richness went from low to high, the biomass(g/m^2) increased in a slope, then plateaued. The same happened with the x-value set as # of functional groups. why does this happen? what did they conclude?

Back 33

1)limited resources
2)productivity is important b/c the more biomass, the more there is to eat-resources.

Front 34

Experiment two on prairie plants worked on the question: does plant species richness affect response to increased CO2 (relevant cuz it's rising) and N? It used 16 species in 4 functional groups, random draw, supplement of one or both, and allowance for growth for measurement of aboveground biomass. Which arrangement of CO2 and N brought the highest change in biomass? What is the control treatment?

Back 34

1)combined elevated CO2 and N addition effect
2)Plots where nothing was changed (ambient environment).

Front 35

What is niche complementarity?

Back 35

range of resources used by a species, different species use resources differently=>more species->more resource use->more productivity. (ex; fungi)

Front 36

****What is sampling effect? what is its downside?

Back 36

1)Get most productive species BY CHANCE=>w/ increasing species richness (nuthin to do with resource or niche).
2)less reproduction, less energy on defense mechanisms.

Front 37

What is species interactions/facilitation?

Back 37

As you get more species=>you get mutualistic interactions (prob more of a long-term effect).

Front 38

What is a population?

Back 38

A group of individuals from the same species that live in the same area at the same time. They interbreed on a reg basis, are exposed to a similar enviroment, are interacting via competition, mutualism, etc.

Front 39

How do biologists describe changes in pop size?

Back 39

use math!! whoohoo!

Front 40

If N0=initial pop size, and N1=pop size one breeding interval later, then what does N1/N0=? what is Nt=N0(lambda^t)?

Back 40

1)lambda="finite rate of increase" (growth rate)-observed over a discrete time interval, appropriate for seasonal breeders.
2) for t years

Front 41

How can we express population growth on a per capita (per individual) basis? what does e^r=?

Back 41

1)have per capita growth rate=r. r=per capita birth rate-per capita death rate. r is the instantaneous rate of increase.
2)lambda.

Front 42

In exponential growth is r constant or no? is r high or low when pop size is? what sort of density growth is expressed(x=generations)?

Back 42

1)constant
2)high
3)density-independent growth

Front 43

In density-dependent growth, r depends on what? What are the components of such a graph and what can be done to make it such?

Back 43

1)population size.
2)The first part of the slope looks like the r is constant but then it changes and is limited off to a carrying capacity. In order to make it density-dependent, the pop growth may be limited (food, space, disease transmission, predation, energy for humans, etc).

Front 44

What is carrying capacity?

Back 44

max number of individuals that can be supported by available resources.

Front 45

Are whooping cranes showing exponential or density-dependent growth?

Back 45

exponential

Front 46

What density-dependent factors contrain growth?

Back 46

food (take it away, supplement), disease (treatment), space (set up plots with diff combinations)

Front 47

What can lower the carrying capacity?

Back 47

an overshoot of taking in resources

Front 48

What is the "replacement rate?"

Back 48

when fertility (avg #kids/female/lifetime)=~2.1

Front 49

What are the changes in growth rate all about?

Back 49

fertility rates

Front 50

If get 2.1 fertility from now until 2050, then by 2050 growth rate will be .47% per year. WHY?

Back 50

most individuals alive now are young->when they have babies, get more total babies even though fewer females->population momentum.

Front 51

population structure is based on what?

Back 51

a pop pyramid

Front 52

Considering relative abundance of diff aged individuals and importance for growth/future-of high survivorship, no growth (fertility constant), what will the pop pyramid look like?

Back 52

up until older ages, surviorships constant in spread, and then toward top, will decrease.

Front 53

Considering relative abundance of diff aged individuals and importance for growth/future-of high survivorship, population declining (fertility dropping), what will the pop pyramid look like? what pops serve as an example?

Back 53

an upside down pyramid; japan, russia for a while.

Front 54

Considering relative abundance of diff aged individuals and importance for growth/future-of high survivorship, population increasing (fertility increasing), what will the pop pyramid look like? what pops serve as an example?

Back 54

a right-side up pyramid; indonesia

Front 55

Considering geographic structure in populations (e.g. glanville fritillary), what is a metapopulation?

Back 55

a population of populations

Front 56

When the experiments with the glanville fritillary were done, a census 2 years later was done and it was found that some populations that were occuppied habitats b4 were gone, other habitats colonized. What are the take-home messages?

Back 56

1)immigration/emigration=>colonization and extinction
2)dynamic=>changing location over time.

Front 57

What plus/minus relationship does the competition theory have?

Back 57

(-/-)

Front 58

What is a species' nich?

Back 58

the sum of all resources it uses and all habitats it occupies.

Front 59

What is a fundamental niche?

Back 59

range of possible resources and habitats used.

Front 60

What is a reazlized niche?

Back 60

actual range of resources and habitats used-usually diff from fundamental b/c another species is using it too.

Front 61

If there is a species A and B that overlap in part (say the resource is flower color), then what will happen over time?

Back 61

resources used will change, natural selection will favor individuals that use non-overlapping resources...therefore niches should change over time (NICHE DIFFERENTIATION). species are partitioning the resource.

Front 62

What is niche breadth determined by?

Back 62

evolution, genetic variation or adaptibility.

Front 63

What is symmetric competition?

Back 63

interacting species affect ea other equally in competition.

Front 64

What is asymmetric competition?

Back 64

one species is a stronger competitor than the other.

Front 65

In competitive exclusion, what happens? why dont we see it in nature everywhere?

Back 65

1)it's like the Gause experiment, one species will completely overlap the other, and driving the 'overlapped' to extinction.
2)lab set-up is diff than in nature.

Front 66

what are the fitness trade-offs w/ high competitive ability?

Back 66

less reproduction, less mutualistic interactions, less defense. Really strong competitors have a narrow range (low-niche breadth) -specialized. local ex: invasive species => blackberry, ivy,scotchbroom. their common predators, parasites, viruses are absent, although they do defend themselves (via thorns etc).

Front 67

What are the crticisms of observational studies?

Back 67

the pattern could be due to alternative reasonable structure (like different resources on diff islands for the galapagos finches or colonization (history), ex: the ones that colonized were just "that way.")---NOT COMPETITION.

Front 68

What is a good type of study for eliminating possibility of history argument? name an example.

Back 68

1)experimental study
2)Connell's study of barnacles (crustaceans) growing in intertidal habitats.

Front 69

What type of experiments have been used to test whether or not predators reduce prey populations below the level that can be supported by available resources?

Back 69

Predator removal experiments

Front 70

What conclusion was drawn from predator removal experiments?

Back 70

in at least some populations, "top down" control of prey populations occurs. the prey then overshoot carrying capacity and then decline from there.

Front 71

What is a trophic relationship?

Back 71

whos eating whom

Front 72

How do prey respond to predators? name two types of ways.

Back 72

they exert natural selection with two types of defenses:

1)Standing defenses=always present [thorns in Hamalayan blackberry, porcupine quills, urchin spines, skunks]

2)Inducible defenses=produced in response to predation [blue crabs and mussels]

Front 73

How must experiments to test a hypothesis be designed in terms of manipulation?

Back 73

the manipulation must be repeated/done on control group too. ex: quills, no quills (clipped), quills clipped then glued back on. also, exposure to fishers, same conditions.

Front 74

what is a keystone species?

Back 74

one that has an extraordinarily large impact on the surrounding community, relative to its abundance. ex: pisaster predator has huge impact on mussel population, even though its biomass isn't that large.

Front 75

In Herbivory, why is the world green? (3 hypothesis)

Back 75

1)the top-down hypothesis
2)the poor nutrition hypothesis: N limitation. growth and reproduction of herbivores is limited by access to N-> Herbivores are N starved b/c plants contain <10% N by weight compared to animals.
3)the plant defense hypothesis: presence of toxins or indigestible compounds prevents tissues from being eaten (cellulose, lignin). Ex: nicotine as an induced defense, synthesized in roots in response to attack by herbivores; transported to trichomes (leaf "hairs").

Front 76

In a study, Hb alleles in healthy and Plasmodium-infected people from Burkina Faso (note: relatively high freq of HbC genotypes. What were the two key observations and conclusion?

Back 76

1)In healty people, HbC genotypes are in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. There is no selection etc v'yaish random mating (w/ respect to that gene).
2)Among Plasmodium-infected people, there are observed no HbCC homozygotes.

Conclusion: HbC heterozygotes reduce risk of infection by 29%. Homozygous reduce risk by 93%.

Front 77

What has "community" been defined as and what are the 4 key ideas that these interact via?

Back 77

1)the collection of species in a particular area
2)Predation/herbivory, competition, parasitism, mutualism.

Front 78

What has "coevolution" been defined as?

Back 78

any interaction b/w species that leads to natural selection and mutual adaptation

Front 79

What were Clement's ideas of communities?

Back 79

That they are highly structured (coevolved and interdependent) and have a mature ("climax") stage that is unchanging. It is predictable b/c it's determined by climate. Communities develop over time like an individual organism. If disturbed, the climax community will reconstitute itself by going through, teiterating stages of development.

Front 80

What were Gleason's ideas of communities?

Back 80

That they are loose assemblages of species. They are not predictable, the species present in an area are there b/c of chance.
Communities are not stable. They are dynamic, change through time. Disturbance is followed by different community development.

Front 81

What are the 3 analyzations required to understand effects of disturbance?

Back 81

type of disturbance, freq of occurance, and severity (including the geographic extent).

Front 82

What is meant by succession?

Back 82

It refers to the sequence of species that occupy a site through time, after a disturbance. (a very Gleason idea)

Front 83

What 3 focuses are required in order to understand the occurence of succession?

Back 83

species traits, species interactions, history

Front 84

Nitrogen atoms cycle through ecosystems, primarily via

Back 84

bacteria and archaea

Front 85

Humans add a lot of what type of nitrogen to the environment?

Back 85

reduced nitrogen

Front 86

Nitrogen atoms cycle through ecosystems, primarily via

Back 86

bacteria and archaea

Front 87

Humans add a lot of what type of nitrogen to the environment?

Back 87

reduced nitrogen