Bio101

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Body Organization

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100 trillion cells (100 bill for brain)

Similar cells in tissues for specific function

General Tissues (Epithelial, Connective, muscle, nervous)

Several tissues can be organized into organs, which can be organ systems.

Eleven organ systems.

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Tissues

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Group of cell with a common structure and function

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Epithelial Tissue

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Squamous, cuboidal, or columnar Depending on cell shapes and layer numbers

Protect tissues from dehydration

Provide sensory surfaces

Secrete oils swear mucus and saliva

Sheets of tightly packed cells, covering the outside of the body lines organs and cavities within the body.

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Cell shapes

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Simple epithelium - single layer of cells

Stratified - multiple layers of cells

Cuboidal (like dice)

Columnar (like bricks on end)

Squamous (flat like floor tiles)

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Connective tissues

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Cells called fibroblasts.

Primarily for support and binding.

Specialized connective: Cartilages (made of chondrocytes)

And Bones (osteocytes)

-protection for integral organs

-shock absorption

-modified connection tissues include: adipose tissue (adipocytes) which stores fat, and blood (blood cells) transports substances and body defense

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Major connective tissues

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In vertebrates are, loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood.

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Connection tissue fiber (proteins)

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Collagenous fibers are made of collagen

Elastic fibers are long threads of elastin

Reticular fibers are very thin and branched

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Loose connective tissue

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Binds epithelial to underlying tissues and function as packing materials, holding organs in a place

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Fibrous connective tissue

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•is dense, due to its large number of collagenous fibers. -– The fibers are organized into parallel bundles, an arrangement that maximizes nonelastic strength. – This type of connective tissue forms

* tendons, attaching muscles to bones, and ligaments, joining bones to bones at joints.

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Cartilage

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•has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix made of a substance called chondroitin sulfate, a protein- carbohydrate complex. – Chondrocytes secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate. We retain cartilage as flexible supports in certain locations, such as the nose, ears, and vertebral disks.

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Cartilag

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The skeleton supporting most vertebrates is made of bone, a mineralized connective tissue. Osteoblasts deposit a matrix of collagen. • Then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions combine and harden within the matrix into the mineral hydroxyapatte.

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Cartilage

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Bones give shape to body structure . • Bones provide support to body weight . • Certain bones protect vital internal organs (i.e. the skull protects the brain). • Blood cell formation: red bone marrow in bones contains "stem cells" that give rise to red blood cells , white blood cells , and the platelets .

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Blood

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functions differently from other connective tissues, but it does have an extensive extracellular matrix. •The matrix is a liquid called plasma, consisting of water, salts, and a variety of dissolved proteins.

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Blood •

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Suspended in the plasma are erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells) and cell fragments called platelets. • Red cells carry oxygen. White cells function in defense against viruses, bacteria, and other invaders. Platelets aid in blood clotting.

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Muscle tissue

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made of muscle fibers

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Smooth muscle

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is found surrounding walls of blood vessels, the digestive tract, and other hollow tubes in the body; to control blood flow and blood pressure, and to push food particles along the digestive tract. They are uninucleated, non-striated (striped), and involuntary muscles.

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Muscle Tissue: skeletal muscle

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is found mainly attached to bones, allowing the body to have body movements and to maintain body postures. They are multinucleated, Striated , and under voluntary control.

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Locomotion

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all body movements are results of skeletal muscle contraction.

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Vasoconstriction and Vasodialation

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constriction and dilation of blood vessel Walls are the results of smooth muscle contraction.

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Peristalsis

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wavelike motion along the digestive tract is produced by the Smooth muscle.

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Cardiac motion

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heart chambers are able to pump blood to the lungs and the Body because of cardiac muscle contraction.

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Nervous Tissue

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• made of nerve cells called neurons and supporting cells called glial cells. • Located in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. • responsible for detecting stimuli, generating and conducting nerve impulses, and transmitting nerve impulses to internal organs .

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Nervous Tissue

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• It consists of a cell body and two or more extensions, called dendrites and axons.Dendrites transmit nerve impulses from their tips toward the rest of the neuron.Axons transmit impulses toward another neuron or toward an effector, such as a muscle cell

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The Human Skeleton

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1. The skeleton is composed is composed of about 206 bones, most of which are articulated to one another (except the inner ear bones, hyoid, and patella).• 2. Divided into axial skeleton (the skull, hyoid, vertebral column, and thoracic cage; a total of 80 bones) and appendicular skeleton (the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs; a total of 126 bones).

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The Human skeleton

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• 3. The outer layer of bone is a very dense and strong tissue called compact bone where large amounts of calcium and phosphorus are deposited, making it tough and durable. While the inner layer is a less dense, porous tissue called spongy bone, so that stress can be absorbed and red bone marrow (for blood formation) can be stored.

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Forehead

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Frontal bone

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cheek bone

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Zygomatic bone

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Upper jaw

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Maxilla

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Joints

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• Most bones in the axial skeleton are either locked into one another forming immovable joints called synarthrosis, or they form slightly movable joints called amphiarthrosis ; so that the axial skeleton can provide more strength to support the body. While bones in the appendicular skeleton form freely movable joints called diarthrosis, so that movements are readily available in the limbs.

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The digestive System

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• 1. Consists of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and its accessory organs. • 2. The GI tract is a 20-foot long tube extending from the mouth to anus. • mouth→ oral cavity→ pharynx→ esophagus→ stomach→ small intestine→ large intestine→ rectum →anus. The tract is mainly responsible for digesting the food and absorbing the resultingnutrients.

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Digestive Organs

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• Mouth and oral cavity: Food enters the GI tract by ingestion Food is broken down by mechanical digestion , using mastication. One chemical digestive process occur where

amylase enzyme in saliva breaks down polysaccharide into disaccharides.

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Digestive Organs

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• 20 deciduous or primary teeth before the age of 6. • By age 7 , 32 permanent or secondary teeth are developed where they are divided into 4 types: incisors (for cutting) , Canines (for tearing) , Premolars (for crushing), and Molars (for

grinding). These teeth follow the human dental formula of 2 1-2-3.

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Esophagus

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• A straight , tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach . Passes food bolus to the stomach using peristalsis . • Contain upper and lower esophageal sphincters to regulate food movement and to prevent food from backing into oral cavity

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Stomach

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A pouch-like organ primarily designed for food

storage (for 2-6 hours), some mechanical and chemical digestion also occur

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4 types of secretory cells:

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- Chief cells secrete pepsinogen (an inactive enzyme).

- Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and "intrinsic factor" (which helps absorption of vitamin B12 in the intestines). - Mucous cells secrete mucus, an alkaline substances to help neutralize HCl in the gastric juice . -G cells secrete a hormone called

gastrin, which stimulates the parietal cells and overall gastricsecretion .

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Pancreas

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• Connected directly to the duodenum of the small intestine. • Serves as both an endocrine (secrete hormones)

and exocrine gland (secrete pancreatic fluid and enzymes for chemical digestion

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Pancreas pt.2

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• 4 major groups of pancreatic enzymes : - pancreatic amylase digest polysaccharides into disaccharides . - pancreatic lipases digest triglycerides into

fatty acids . - pancreatic nucleases digest nucleic acids into nucleotides . -

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Importance of nutrients pt 2

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• Energy is used in a variety of ways in body cells – to power muscle contraction , to drive active transport , and to provide the necessary activation energy in many chemical reactions such as DNA replication, protein synthesis ,and cell division.

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The digestive System pt 2

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3. The accessory organs include the teeth and tongue in the oral cavity, the salivary glands, the liver and gallbladder, and the pancreas. They are mainly responsible for secreting digestive fluid and enzymes into the GI tract (particularly the small intestine).

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The digestive system pt 3

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• 4. After swallowing the food, from the esophagus to the rectum, wavelike contraction called peristalsis occurs at the smooth muscle wall of GI tract, allowing the food particles and undigested materials to move toward the anus. • 5. All activities of the digestive organs are controlled by the nervous and endocrine systems. The organs themselves, moreover, have reflex mechanisms to regulate each other (e.g. the stomach and smallintestine).

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Importance of nutrients

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• Food is broken down by the digestive system into nutrients (glucose , amino acids , fatty acids , vitamins , minerals , and water). • Nutrients will be delivered to body cells where metabolism occurs. • One of the most important part of metabolism is cellular respiration in which nutrients are oxidizes to yield energy (usually in form of ATP)

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Ingestion

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The oral cavity allows food to

enter the digestive tract and have mastication (chewing) occur.

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Digestion

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chemical digestion – hydrolysis reactions aided by enzymes (mainly in the stomach and small intestine) chemically break down food particles into nutrient molecules , small enough to be absorbed .

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Secretion

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enzymes and digestive fluids

secreted by the digestive tract and its accessory organs facilitate chemical digestion .

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Absorption

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passage of the end – products (nutrients) of chemical digestion

from the digestive tract into blood or lymph for distribution to tissue cells

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Elimination

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undigested material will be released through the rectum and anus by defecation .