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84 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Neurons
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Nerve Cells
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Ganglia
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cluster of neurons
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Nerve Net
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Net like pattern of nerves running throughout an animal's body
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Sensory neurons
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Transmit info from receptors that detect external stimuli and internal conditions.
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Internal Neurons
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Integrate sensory input, considering immediate input while comparing it to past events.
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Motor neurons
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transmit information to effector cells in order to carry out a specific response.
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Effector cells
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muscle and endocrine cells.
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Neuron Structure
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Dendrites, cell body, axon hillock, axon, myelin sheath, synapse.
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Gila Cells
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Support cells essential for structural integrity of the nervous system and normal functioning of neurons, 10-50 times more numerous than neurons.
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Schwann Cells
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Support cells essential for insulating axons of neurons with a myelin sheath; mostly lipids.
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Multiple Sclerosis
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Disease in which the myelin sheath deteriorates, resulting in the progressive loss of body function due to the disruption of nerve signal transmission
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Action Potentials
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Membrane potential, action potential, threshold, depolarization, reploarization.
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Membrane Potentials
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Electrical voltage across a neuron's membrane (-70 mV) when cell is not transmitting a signal or simply resting (aka resting potential)
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Action Potential
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Rapid change in the membrane potential of an excitable cell, caused by stimulus, must pass threshold of -55 mV.
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Threshold
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Membrane voltage a stimulus must reach for an action potential to be generated.
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Depolarization
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increase in magnitude of an action potential
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Reploarization
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decrease in magnitude of an action potential
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Saltatory Conduction
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action potential jumps from node to node
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Nodes of Ranvier
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gaps between myelin sheath, faster action potential with larger diameter axon and thicker myelin sheathing
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Synapse
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gap or space between neurons
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Chemical synapse
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neurotransmitter is released from pre-synaptic neuron.
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Neurotransmitter
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packaged chemical in vesicles at edge of synaptic gap.
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Neurotransmitters
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acetycholine, dopamine/serotoin, endorphin's.
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Acetycholine
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excites skeletal muscle and reduces the strength and rate of cardiac muscle contraction, neuromuscular junction.
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Dopamine/Serotoin
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Affects sleep, mood, attention, and learning; brain.
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Endorphins
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decrease pain perception while producing a sense of euphoria.
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
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brain and spinal cord, located on dorsal side of body, surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a blood filtrate.
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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cranial and spinal nerves, cranial nerves originate in the brain and terminate in organs of the head and upper body, spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord and terminate in the lower body. Includes Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.
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Somatic Nervous System
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Carries signals to and from skeletal muscles, mainly in response to external stimuli (voluntary control).
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Autonomic Nervous system
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Regulates internal stimuli by controlling smooth and cardiac muscles and organs of digestive, excretory, endocrine, and cardiovascular systems (involuntary). Divides into sympathetic and parasympathetic.
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Sympathetic division
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Corresponds to arousal and energy generation; also homeostasis.
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Parasympathetic division
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Corresponds to calming, returning to normal functions; also homeostasis.
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Bipolar Disorder
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Mood swings, high self esteem, increased energy flow of ideas- increased creativity, increased risk-taking, constant conversation, promiscuity, reckless spending. cause is unknown, Prozac for treatment.
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Schizophrenia
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unable to distinguish reality, hallucinations (voices) and delusions (paranoia), blunted emotions, easily distracted, lack of initiative, and lack of conversation. cause is unknown, dopamine receptor blockers for treatment.
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Parkinson's Disease
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Progressive motor disorder characterized by slowness and difficulty in initiated movement, rigidity, masked facial expression, muscle tremors, poor balance, flexed posture, and shuffling gait. Cause is neuronal death-loss of dopamine receptors, treatment is dopamine agonists.
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Alzheimer's Disease
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Progressive mental deterioration (dementia); characterized by confusion, memory loss, inability to recognize people, personality changes, and physical incapacitation and deterioration. Causes= neuronal death-brain shrinkage, Treatment= Aricept (early stages)-nothing in late stages.
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Sensory Transduction
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conversion of stimulus energy into change in membrane potential of a sensory receptor.
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Amplification
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strengthening of stimulus energy by cells in sensory pathways (can increase from 10's to 100,000's X's)
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Transmission
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conduction of sensory signals to the CNS by neurons or neurotransmitters.
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Integraton
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Interpertation of sensory signals with in processing centers of the CNS.
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Sensory Adaptation
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Decrease in responsiveness during continued stimulation.
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Chemoreceptors
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transmit info about (1) total sloute concentration or (2) individual kinds of molecules
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Mechanoreceptors
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Sense physical deformation cause by stimulic (pressure, touch, strech, motion and sound)
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Electromagnetic receptors
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detect forms of energy including visible light, electrcity and magnetisim.
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Photoreceptors
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light
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Infrared receptors
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body heat
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Electroreceptors
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electrical impulses
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Magnetreceptors
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Magnetic Fields
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Thermorecptors
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respond to heat or cold, signaling both surface and body core temperatures
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Nociceptors
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pain receptors; class of naked dendrites in the epidermis of the skin
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Mechanoreceptors Invertebrates
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Statocysts, statoliths.
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Mechanoreceptors Vertebrates
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Uricle/saccule, otoliths.
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Statocysts
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Sensory organs that contain mechanoreceptors that detect changes in gravity
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Statoliths
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Dense granules in a chamber that detect gravity by position (crustaceons)
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Uricle/Saccule
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Chambers in inner ear that respond to changes in head position with respect to gravity.
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Otoliths
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CaCo_3 granules in a chamber that detect gravity by position (humans).
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Invertebrate auditory receptors
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Hair of varying length for varying frequencies as well as tympanic membrane covering an internal air chamber (house cricket).
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Vertebrate Auditory Receptors
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vibrations perceived by tempanic membrane are transmitted across bones of the middle ear (stapes, incus, malleus) to inner ear.
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Vertebrate Air/Swim Bladder
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Vibrates in response to sound-transfer to inner ear.
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Vertebrate Weberian apparatus
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conducts vibrations from bladder to inner ear (ossicles)
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Vertebrate Lateral Line System
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detects low-frequency waves (similar to inner ear).
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Chemoreceptors Vertebrates Gustation
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ability to taste chemicals present in solution. Modified epithelial cells located on papillae and organized into taste buds (bitter, salty, sour, sweet, umami).
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Chemoreceptors Vertebrates Olfaction
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ability to smell airborne chemicals. Neurons line the nasal cavity, sending impulses directly to the olfactory bulb in brain.
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Invertebrate Vision Ocelli
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Light-detecting organ that determines light intensity and direction, no image forming capabilities, found in insects.
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Invertebrate Vision Compound Eye
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thousands of light-detectors, each with its own light-focusing lens, mosaic image sharpened by the brain, capable of detecting motion, colors, and ultraviolet light, found in insects.
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Invertebrate Vision Single Lens Eyes
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capable of focusing light on a layer of photoreceptors as it enters through a small opening, adjusts to compensate for varying light intensities, focus by moving the lens back and forth, found in spiders, ex. jumping spider.
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Vertebrate Vision Single Lens Eyes Iris
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Adjust to regulate the amount of light entering the pupil. Aquatic verterbrates focus by moving the lens back and forth. Terrestral vertebrates focus by altering the shape of the lens (accommodation).
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Vertebrate Vision Color Vision
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Found in all vertebrate classes but not all spp. Most fish, amphibians, and birds have color vision. Humans and other primates are among the minority of mammals with color vision.
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Rods
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sensitive to light, but cant distinguish colors; nocturnal animals (125 million/ eye).
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Cons
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less sensitive to light, can distinguish colors; diurnal animals (6 million/eye)
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Rhodopsin
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Visual pigment found in rods. As it absorbs light, it changes shape, making rods unresponsive. Moving from dark to bright light requires several minuets for "bleached" rods to become responsive again.
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Photopsin
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three visual pigment found in cones (red, green, blue). Overlapping absorption spectra allows for intermediate hues.
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Colorblindness
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Deficiency or absence of one or more types of photopsin.
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Animal Skeleton Main Functions
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Support, protection, movement.
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Body Posture
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position of legs to main body is an important structural feature in birds and mammals.
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Hydrostatic Skeleton
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Fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment; muscles change shape in fluid-filled body compartments. Found in cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes, and annelids.
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Exoskeleton
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Hard encasement deposited in the surface of an organism. In arthropods composed of chitin. Exoskeleton periodically shed for growth, found in mollusks and arthropods.
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Endoskeleton
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Hard supporting elements buried deep within soft tissue, sponges reinforced with spicules, echinoderms reinforced with bony plates, chordates reinforce with cartilage and/or bone.
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Muscles
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Work in antagonistic pairs in order for body parts to move in opposite directions.
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3 muscle types
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skeletal, cardiac, smooth.
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More on Muscles
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Arthropod, vertebrate skeletal and smooth muscles are nearly identical. Insect flight muscles can beat faster than action potentials arrive. Clam abductor muscles can remain contacted with low energy consumption for up to a month.
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Flying
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Gravity is a major problem that wings must over come with lift. Shape of wings is significant for type of flight. Adaptations exist to reduce body mass. Fusiform shape for aerodynamics.
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Swimming (most efficient)
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Friction is a major problem that fusiform design must overcome with hydrodynamics. Water is denser than air which creates friction, but it provides buoyancy to cope with gravity. Diverse methods of swimming allows animals to overcome friction.
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Walking, Running, Hopping, Etc (least Efficient)
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Friction is a minor problem because air is less dense than water. Gravity is a major Problem due to the animals necessity to support itself. Larger animals require more energy for locomotion.
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