Final Exam Study Guide

Front 1

Be able to describe the structural organization of the human body (from atom toorganism)

Back 1

Chemical Level (atoms), Cellular Level, Tissue Level, Organ Level, System Level, Organismal Level

Front 2

Anatomical Position

Back 2

Standing erect, Facing observer, Eyes facing forward, Feet flat and facing forward, Upper limbs at side with palms facing forward.

Front 3

Prone

Back 3

lying face DOWN

Front 4

Supine

Back 4

lying face UP

Front 5

Superior/cephaled

Back 5

toward the head or upper part of a structure

Front 6

Inferior/caudal

Back 6

away from the head or lower part of a structure

Front 7

Anterior/ventral

Back 7

toward the front of the body

Front 8

Posterior/dorsal

Back 8

toward the back of the body

Front 9

Medial

Back 9

closer to midline

Front 10

lateral

Back 10

farther from midline

Front 11

intermediate

Back 11

in between 2 structures

Front 12

ipsilateral

Back 12

on same side of the body

Front 13

contralateral

Back 13

on opposite side of the body

Front 14

Proximal

Back 14

closer to attachment of limb to trunk or closer to origin of a structure

Front 15

Distal

Back 15

farther from attachment of limb totrunk, farther from the origin of a structure

Front 16

Superficial/external

Back 16

toward the body surface

Front 17

Deep/internal

Back 17

away from the body surface

Front 18

major body cavities

Back 18

cranial, thoracic, abdominopelvic

Front 19

membranes of the thoracic cavity

Back 19

membranes of the lungs

membranes of the heart

Front 20

membranes of the lungs

Back 20

Parietal Pleura (right and left)

Visceral Pleura (right and left)

Pleural Cavity

Front 21

membranes of the heart

Back 21

Parietal Pericardium

Visceral Perdicardium

Pericardial Cavity

Front 22

membranes of the abdominopelvic cavity

Back 22

peritoneum

Front 23

membranes of the peritoneum

Back 23

Parietal Peritoneum

Visceral Peritoneum

Peritoneal Cavity

Front 24

serous membrane

Back 24

double layered membrane

Front 25

parietal layer

Back 25

thin layer that lines the walls of the cavities

Front 26

visceral layer

Back 26

thin layer that covers the organs (viscera)

Front 27

abdominpelvic quadrants

Back 27

right upper

right lower

left upper

left lower

Front 28

which abdominopelvic quadrant would you find a majority of the liver and the stomach?

Back 28

left upper

Front 29

3 main parts of the cell

Back 29

plasma/cell membrane (plasmalemma)

cytoplasm

nucleus

Front 30

active transport

Back 30

Substances move AGAINSTthe concentration/electrical gradient and require energy in the form of ATP.

Front 31

types of active transport

Back 31

primary

secondary

vesicular

Front 32

passive transport

Back 32

Substances move DOWNthe concentration/electrical gradient. (Meaning it moves to area of LOWERconc.)

Front 33

types of passive transport

Back 33

Simple diffusion

Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion

Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion

Osmosis

Front 34

isotonic solution

Back 34

soln. that contains the same [solutes] as thecytosol.

Front 35

hypotonic solution

Back 35

soln. containing a lower [solute]than the cytosol. This type of soln causes the cellto SWELL.

Front 36

hypertonic solution

Back 36

soln. containing a higher [solute]than the cytosol. This type of soln causes the cellto SHRINK

Front 37

lipid bilayer

Back 37

FluidMosaic Model

Made upof: phospholipids,cholesterol, and glycolipids

Bilayer: result of amphipathicproperties Hydrophobic tails Hydrophilic heads

Separates cytosol from ECF

Front 38

centrosomes

Back 38

Contain centrioles and pericentriolar material.

Centrioles composed of 9 microtubule triplets organized into acircular pattern.

Function: organizing center for mitotic spindle (cell division)and for microtubule formation in nondividing cells.

Front 39

cilia

Back 39

Short, hairlike projections.

Composed mostly of microtubules.

Function: move fluid along the cells surface

Front 40

flagella

Back 40

Similar to cilia, but longer.

Composed mostly of microtubules.

Function: move entire cell; ex: sperm

Front 41

ribosomes

Back 41

Found on outer surface of nucleus, within endoplasmic reticulum andfloating freely.

Composed of rRNA and proteins.

Function: protein synthesis.

Front 42

endoplasmic reticulum

Back 42

Network of membranes organized into flattened sacs

Front 43

rough ER

Back 43

continuous with nuclear membrane; CONTAINS RIBOSOMES

Function: synthesizes secretory proteins, membrane proteins aswell as other proteins.

Front 44

smooth ER

Back 44

extends from rough ER; LACKS RIBOSOMES.

Function: synthesizes fattyacids (FA’s) and steroids; participates in detoxification

Front 45

golgi complex

Back 45

Composed of cisternae, flattened membranous sacs with bulbous endpoints.

Cis face is side that faces RER; Transface is side that faces the plasma membrane.

Function: contains enzymes that act to modify, sort &package proteins into vesicles.

Front 46

lysosomes

Back 46

Membrane-enclosed vesicles that form from the membrane of the golgicomplex.

Composed of many enzymes- digestive & hydrolytic.

Function: digest substances that enter cell.

Front 47

peroxisomes

Back 47

Similar to lysosomes, but smaller.

Function: Contains oxidases, enzymes which removehydrogen from a variety of organic substances and aid in detoxification ofcells

Front 48

proteosomes

Back 48

Constructed fromproteins stacked in ring formation.

Containproteases, enzymes that breakdown proteins.

Function: destroysunnecessary, damaged, or faulty proteins.

Front 49

mitochondria

Back 49

Known as the POWERHOUSE of the cell due to its massive generation ofATP.

Consists of an outer double-membrane, internal folds known as cristae,and mitochondrial matrix.

Different from other organelles in that mitochondria contain their ownDNA. *Mitochondrial genes are inherited ONLY from your mother.

Function: generation of ATP (energy) & has an importantrole in apoptosis

Front 50

define cancer

Back 50

group of diseases characterized by uncontrolledor abnormal cell division

As a result atumor (neoplasm) develops.

tumors may be benign or malignant, cancerous tumors are malignant

Front 51

malignant tumors

Back 51

have the ability mestastasize

Front 52

benign tumors

Back 52

do not have the ability mestastasize (e.g. warts)

Front 53

location of: simple cuboidal epithelium

Back 53

Surface of ovary

Lines anterior surface of lens of the eye and formspigmented epithelium at posterior surface of retina of the eye

Lines kidney tubules and smaller ducts of many glands

Makes up secreting portion of some glands,such as thyroid gland and ducts of some glands suchas pancreas.

Front 54

location of: ciliated psuedostratified columnar epithelium

Back 54

Lines respiratory tract from nasal cavity throughbronchi.

Eustachian tubes.

Front 55

location of: keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Back 55

Keratinized variety forms superficial layer of skin(epidermis)

*Keratin= waterproof protein

Front 56

location of: transitional epithelium

Back 56

Lines ureters, bladder, urethra.

Has elastic properties allowing surface cells to take on varying shapes.

Front 57

location of: Adipose CT

Back 57

Wherever areolar connective tissue is located

Front 58

location of: Dense regular CT

Back 58

Tendons- attach muscle to bone

Ligaments- attach bone to bone

Aponeuroses- broad tendons that attach muscle to muscle or muscle to bone

Front 59

location of: Dense irregular CT

Back 59

Fascia

Reticular region of dermis (skin)

Fibrous pericardium of heart

Periosteum of bone

Perichondrium of cartilage

Joint capsules

Heart valves

Membrane capsules around various organs

Front 60

location of: Fibrocartilage

Back 60

IVDs

Menisci

Pubic symphysis

Front 61

four cells of the epidermis

Back 61

Keratinocytes

Melanocytes

Langerhans cells

Merkel cells

Front 62

Keratinocytes

Back 62

make up 90% of the cells. They produce keratin - a tough fibrous protein that provides protection.

Front 63

Melanocytes

Back 63

produce the pigment melanin that protects against damage by ultraviolet radiation.

Front 64

Langerhans cells

Back 64

are macrophages that originated in the red bone marrow. They are involved in the immune responses.

Front 65

Merkel cells

Back 65

function in the sensation of touch along with the other adjacent tactile discs (receptors).

Front 66

layers of the epidermis

Back 66

The epidermis is composed of fourlayers in thin skin, and five layers in thick skin.

Stratum corneum

Stratum lucidum

Stratum granulosum

Stratum spinosum

Stratum basale

Front 67

melanin

Back 67

impart colors to the skin

Melanin is produced by melanocytes in the stratumbasale. The # of melanocytes is the same in everyone, it is the amount ofmelanin that differs

Front 68

2 types of melanin

Back 68

Eumelanin (brown to black)

Pheomelanin (yellow to red)

Front 69

what are freckles?

Back 69

Freckles are clusters of concentrated melanintriggered by exposure to sunlight

Front 70

what are nevi?

Back 70

Localized overgrowth ofmelanocytes= nevus (mole)

Front 71

two regions of dermis

Back 71

papillary region

reticular region

Front 72

papillary region

Back 72

consists of areolar CT containing thincollagen and elastic fibers, dermal papillae, corpuscles of touch and freenerve endings.

Front 73

reticular region

Back 73

consists of dense irregular CT containingcollagen and elastic fibers, adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous(oil) glands, and sudoriferous (sweat) glands.

Front 74

first-degree burn

Back 74

involves only the epidermis. It ischaracterized by mild pain and erythema (redness) but no blisters and skinfunctions remain intact.

Front 75

second-degree burn

Back 75

destroys the epidermis and part of the dermis -some skin functions are lost. Redness, blister formation, edema, and painresult

Front 76

third-degree burn

Back 76

is a full-thickness burn (destroys theepidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer). Most skin functions are lost, andthe region is numb because sensory nerve endings have been destroyed

Front 77

compact bone

Back 77

has few spaces, is stronger than spongy, and containsosteons. Intricate system provides routes for nutrients and oxygen as well asthe removal of waste


Front 78

spongy bone

Back 78

lighterthan compact bone, trabecular, no osteons, and spaces filled with red bonemarrow.

Front 79

bone remodeling

Back 79

The continuous replacement of oldbone tissue by new bone tissue via resorption and deposition ofminerals and collagen fibers.

Resorption= OSTEOCLASTS

Depositon= OSTEOBLASTS

5% of total bone is beingremodeled at any given time.

Remodeling occurs at differentrates in different areas of the body.

Remodeling occurs in response toinjury, exercise, diet, etc.

Front 80

types of bone fractures

Back 80

open (compound), comminuted, greenstick, pott, colles

Front 81

open (compound) fracture

Back 81

broken ends of bone protrude through skin

Front 82

comminuted fracture

Back 82

bone is splintered, crushed or broken into pieces

Front 83

Greenstick fracture

Back 83

partial fracture, only one side broken; only occurs in children

Front 84


Pott fracture

Back 84

fracture at distal end of fibula

Front 85

Colles’ fracture

Back 85

fracture at distal end of radius

Front 86

describe the steps of bone repair

Back 86

Formation of fracture hematoma w/in 6-8 hours ofinjury.

Fibrocartilaginous callus formation- fibroblasts enter fracture site toproduce collagen fibers and chondroblasts produce fibrocartilage. Takes ~3 weeks.

Bony callus formation- osteoblasts produce trabeculae of spongybones. Takes 3-4 mo.

Final Phase= bone remodeling

Front 87

bone disorders

Back 87

fractures

rickets

osteomalacia

osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease)

osteoporosis

osteomyelitis

osteosarcoma

Front 88

rickets

Back 88

Defective mineralization of bones due to deficiency orimpaired metabolism of vitamin D, phosphorus or calcium.Bones more likely to bend.

Front 89

osteomalacia

Back 89

Softening of bones, often caused by a vitamin Ddeficiency. Bones more likely to break.

Front 90

osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease)

Back 90

A geneticbone disorder characterized by fragile bones that break easily.

A person isborn with this disorder and is affected throughout his or her life time.

Front 91

osteoporosis

Back 91

Most common bone disease

Bones lose mass - both organic matrix and mineral

Highest incidence in elderly white and asian women;african americans and hispanics also susceptible

Increased frequency of fractures ( about 40% of 50 yearold women will fracture a bone during their remaining lifetime)

Greatest risk in post-menopausal women

Estrogen stimulates osteoblast

Also occurs in amenorrheal younger women

Actonel, Fosamax - new treatment

Front 92

osteomyelitis

Back 92

infection in a bone

Front 93

osteosarcoma

Back 93

bone cancer that commonly occurs in children

Front 94

TMJ joint

Back 94

Combined hinge and planar joint

Formed by condylar process of mandible and mandibularfossa of temporal bone

Meniscus present (fibrocartilaginous)

*TMJ disorder

Front 95

TMJ disorder

Back 95

pain and inflammation of the tempormandibular joint. potential causes – injury, arthritis, bruxism (grinding teeth)

Front 96

shoulder joint

Back 96

Ball and socket joint

Formed by head of humerus and glenoid cavity of scapula

Glenoid labrum, - fibrocartilage around edge of glenoidcavity4 bursae present

*Rotator cuff injury

*Disolcation

*Torn Glenoid labrum

Front 97

Rotator cuff injury

Back 97

strain or tear in rotator cuff muscles

Front 98

Disolcation

Back 98

most common is inferior displacement of humeral head

Front 99

Torn glenoid labrum

Back 99

can lead to dislocation, common in pitchers and weight lifters

Front 100

elbow joint

Back 100

Hinge joint

Formed by trochlea & capitulum of humerus,trochlear notch of ulna, and head of radius.

*Tennis elbow (lateral epicondylitis)

*Golfers elbow (medial epicondylitis

Front 101

tennis elbow

Back 101

lateral epicondylitis

Front 102

golfers elbow

Back 102

medial epicodylitis

Front 103

hip joint

Back 103

ball and socket joint

formed by head of femur and acetabulum of coxal (hip) bone

Front 104

knee joint

Back 104

Hinge joint.

Consists of 3 joints:

Tibiofemoral (laterally)

Tibiofemoral (medially)

Patellofemoral

2 menisci (medial & lateral)

3 bursae

Front 105

organization of CNA

Back 105

Brain + Spinal Cord

Source of thoughts, emotions andmemories

Front 106

organization of PNS

Back 106

Nervous tissue outside of CNS

Divided into:

-- Somatic NS- voluntary

-- Autonomic NS- involuntary

- Sympathetic

- Parasympathetic

-- Enteric NS- “brain gut”-involuntary

Front 107

multipolar neurons

Back 107

several dendrites + one axon

found in brain, spinal cord, motor neurons

Front 108

bipolar neuron

Back 108

one main dendrite + one axon

found in retina, inner ear, and olfactory area of brain

Front 109

unipolar neuron

Back 109

dendrites + axon fused together

found in ganglia of spinal & cranial nerves

Front 110

which neuroglia are found in the CNS?

Back 110

Astrocytes

Oligodendrocytes

Microglia

Ependymal

Front 111

which neuroglia are found in the PNS?

Back 111

Schwanncells

Satellitecells

Front 112

is myelin found in grey or white matter?

Back 112

white

Front 113

what function does myelin serve?

Back 113

lipid & protein covering thatallows nerve impulse conduction to occur at a quicker rate.

Unmyelinated axons transmitimpulses more slowly

Front 114

electrical synapses

Back 114

AP conducted between adjacent neurons via gap junctions(tunnels connecting cytosol of 2 cells).

Faster communication than is seen at chemical synapses.

Have ability to coordinate (synchronize) the activityof groups of neurons or mm fibers

- Ex: heartbeat, digestion of food through GI tract

Front 115

chemical synapses

Back 115

Unlike electrical synapses, chemical synapses areseparated by a synaptic cleft.

Conducts impulse across synaptic cleft using aneurotransmitter (Ach in mm contraction).

Post-synaptic neuron receives chemical signal fromneurotransmitter and produces a potential.

This need to relay information across the synapse makeschemical signal transduction occur at a slower rate.

Front 116

the speed of the action potential propagation depends on what three things?

Back 116

Amount of myelination: more myelin = faster

Axon diameter: larger = faster

Temperature: warmer = faster

Front 117

what is summation?

Back 117

process by which graded potentials are added together. Greater summation= greaterchance of reaching threshold, therefore greater chance of creating an action potential

Front 118

2 types of summation

Back 118

spatial

temporal

Front 119

spatial summation

Back 119

Summation of postsynaptic potentials triggered by simultaneous stimuli arising fromDIFFERENT LOCATIONS

Front 120

temporal summation

Back 120

Summation of postsynaptic potentials triggered bystimuli from the same location,but at DIFFERENT TIMES.

Front 121

how do continuous and saltatory conduction differ?

Back 121

CONTINUOUS- occurs along UNMYELINATEDaxons

SALTATORY- occurs along MYELINATED axons

- AP “jumps” from node to node,allowing the AP to travel much faster

- Saltare (latin): to hop or leap

Front 122

how is a neurotransmitter action stopped?

Back 122

As previously discussed with muscle contraction,neurotransmitters must be removed in order for the synapse to return to anormal state.

This may be accomplished in several ways:

- DIFFUSION of NT away from synaptic cleft

- ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION

- CELLULAR REUPTAKE of NT

Front 123

acetylcholine

Back 123

Released mostly from PNS neurons. Can be eitherEXCITATORY or INHIBITORY. Its action depends on the type of receptor receivingthe acetylcholine. Inactivated by acetylcholinesterase

Front 124

norepinephrine

Back 124

*catecholamine

role in arousal, dreaming and mood regulation

Front 125

epinephrine

Back 125

*catecholamine

released by adrenal medulla;actions similar to those seen with sympathetic stimulation

Front 126

dopamine

Back 126

*catecholamine

role in emotions, addiction, pleasure.Parkinson’s disease: degeneration of neurons responsible for releasingdopamine.

Front 127

substance p

Back 127

* neuropeptide

neurotransmitter in pain pathways (mediates ourperception of pain)

Front 128

enkephalins and endorphins

Back 128

* neuropeptide

endogenous morphine-likesubstances. Both are structurally similar to morphine and bind to morphinereceptors. Modulate pain by inhibiting release of substance P. Runner’shigh. Natural child birth

Front 129

nitric oxide

Back 129

Excitatory neurotransmitter with widespreadeffects on body. Causes relaxation of mm cells, resulting in vasodilation:Increase in blood vessel diameter. Act to lower BP and cause erection in males.Basis of the drug Sildenafil (Viagra). Toxic in high quantities!

Front 130

sympathetic NS

Back 130

Fight-or-flight response

↑ alertness, ↑ heart rate, ↑respiratory rate, pupildilation, dry mouth, etc.

Origin of neurons: Thoracolumbar outflow: lateral hornof gray matter of spinal cord segments T1-L2

Location of ganglia: Ganglia within a few cm of CNS:alongside vertebral column (paravertebral ganglia) and anterior tovertebral column (prevertebral ganglia)

Front 131

parasympathetic NS

Back 131

Rest-and-digest response

↑ salivation, lacrimation,urination, digestion & defecation

↓ heart rate, respiratory rate anddiameter of pupils (constriction)

Origin of neurons: Craniosacraloutflow: brainstem nuclei of cranialnerves III, VII, IX and X; lateral horn of spinal cord segments S2-S4

Location of ganglia: Ganglia in orclose to visceral organ served (intramural = terminal)

Front 132

which transmitters are released by sympathetic preganglionic neurons?

Back 132

Ach

Front 133

which transmitters are released by sympathetic postganglionic neurons?

Back 133

norepinephrine (NE)

Front 134

which transmitters are released by parasympathetic preganglionic neurons?

Back 134

Ach

Front 135

which transmitters are released by parasympathetic postganglionic neurons?

Back 135

Ach

Front 136

how many total pairs of spinal nerves are there?

Back 136

31

Front 137

how many total pairs of cervical nerves are there?

Back 137

8. nerves c1-c7 exit above vertebrae.

Front 138

how many total pairs of thoracic nerves are there?

Back 138

12

Front 139

how many total pairs of lumbar nerves are there?

Back 139

5

Front 140

how many total pairs of sacral nerves are there?

Back 140

5

Front 141

how many total pairs of coccygeal nerves are there?

Back 141

1

Front 142

what type of signal does the anterior root (spinal nerves) carry?

Back 142

motor

Front 143

what type of signal does the posterior root (spinal nerves) carry?

Back 143

sensory

Front 144

components of the reflex arc

Back 144

Sensory Receptor

Sensory Neuron

Integrating Center

Motor Neuron

Effector

Front 145

3 dura mater extensions

Back 145

Falx Cerebri

Falx Cerebelli

Tentorium Cerebelli

Front 146

Falx Cerebri

Back 146

separates hemispheres of CEREBRUM

Front 147

Falx Cerebelli

Back 147

separates hemispheres of CEREBELLUM

Front 148

Tentorium Cerebelli

Back 148

separates cerebrum from cerebellum

Front 149

three meningeal layers and the spaces found in/around meninges

Back 149

*made up of connective tissue

(inside -> outside)

pia mater

subarachnoid space - potential space

arachnoid mater

subdural space

dura mater

Front 150

pia mater

Back 150

contains CSF

Front 151

arachnoid mater

Back 151

contains interstitial fluid

Front 152

dura mater

Back 152

contains fat, nerves, vessels

Front 153

What are dermatomes?

Back 153

Sensory neurons supply all the skin of the body.

Each spinal nerve serves a specific area- these areasare known as DERMATOMES

Certain areas have considerable overlap which minimizesloss of sensation

Front 154

Be able to describe the location of each majordermatomal area

Back 154

green - C

blue - Thoracic

orange - Lumbar

purple - Sacral

Front 155

which structures make up the brain stem?

Back 155

medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain

Front 156

which structures make up the diencephalon?

Back 156

thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus

Front 157

where are substantia nigra found?

Back 157

midbrain

Front 158

what is the connection between substantia nigra and parkinson's disease?

Back 158

substantia nigra release dopamine and are the nuclei lost in parkinson's disease

Front 159

functions of the cerebellum

Back 159

Fine motor control

Balance and equilibrium.

Posture & balance

Coordination

Eye movement

Cognitive functions- attention, language/musicprocessing.

Front 160

how does alcohol affect the cerebellum?

Back 160

Alcohol significantly effects the cerebellum.

Chronic consumption leads to nutritional deficiencies,in particular vitamin B1 (thiamine), to which the cerebellum is very sensitive.

Front 161

what is basal nuclei (basal ganglia)?

Back 161

Collection of gray matter locatedwithin each cerebral hemisphere next to the thalamus.

Front 162

what is the major role of basal nuclei (basal ganglia)?

Back 162

Play important role in the control of postureand voluntary movement

Front 163

what gland is found in the epithalamus?

Back 163

pineal gland

Front 164

what hormone does the pineal gland secrete and what role does it play?

Back 164

secretes melatonin which is associate with sleep.

Front 165

stretch reflex

Back 165

Contraction of skeletal mm in response to stretching ofthe muscle.

Monosynaptic feedback mechanism to control musclelength

Can be elicited by tapping on tendons attached tomuscles. --> Elbow, wrist, knee, and ankles.

At same time as monosynaptic reflex, a polysynapticreflex arc to the ANTAGONISTIC muscle is activated.

3 neurons (sensory, interneuron, motor

2 synapses

Interneuron is inhibitory, causing the antagonisticmuscle to relax when the primary muscle contracts.

Front 166

tendon reflex

Back 166

Feedback mechanism that controls muscle tension (asopposed to length).Causes relaxation before tendon is torn. (i.e. droppinga weight that is too heavy)

Less sensitive than stretch reflex, but can overridestretch reflex if tension is significant.

The sensory neuron arising from the tendon organ alsosynapses with an excitatory interneuron.

The interneuron synapses with a motor neuron, causingsimultaneous contraction of the ANTAGONISTIC muscle.

Front 167

vessels that supply blood to the brain

Back 167

internal coratoid and vertebral arteries

Front 168

vessels that drain blood from the brain

Back 168

internal jugular veins

Front 169

what happens if there is a disruption in blood flow to/from the brain?

Back 169

For ~1-2 min = neuron function impaired

For ~4 min = permanent injury

Front 170

what can cross the Blood-Brain Barrier?

Back 170

Oxygen,CO2, alcohol and other lipophilic substances cross freely.

Glucosevia active transport.

Creatinine,urea, ion cross very slowly.

Front 171

what cannot cross the Blood-Brain Barrier?

Back 171

Proteins and antibiotics

Front 172

What is the limbic system?

Back 172

Consists of many different parts,including:

- Cingulate gyrus

- Amygdala of basal nuclei

- Mammillary bodies of hypothalamus

- Certain nuclei of the thalamus

- Olfactory bulbs

- Fornix

Often referred to as “emotionalbrain”.

Also plays role in memory.

Front 173

left hemisphere

Back 173

reasoning, numerical skills,scientific skills, speech, writing, sign language

Damage = aphasia (disturbance in language formation)

Front 174

right hemisphere

Back 174

musical and artistic abilities,pattern perception, facial recognition, emotion, smells, images, taste

Damage= monotonous voice

Front 175

hemispheric lateralization

Back 175

left hemisphere and right hemisphere

Much variation from one person to the next.

Less pronounced in females, possibly related to broaderposterior corpus callosum.

Front 176

Meniere's disease

Back 176

Results from ↑ amount of endolymph that enlarges the membranouslabyrinth.

Symptoms: hearing loss + tinnitus + vertigo

Almost total destruction of hearing may occur over aperiod of years.

Front 177

describe the physiology of hearing

Back 177

Sound waves strike the TM causing it to vibrate

The vibrations are transmitted through the middle earbones to the oval window

Fluid pressure waves are transmitted down the scalavestibuli, through the helicotrema, down the scala tympani, and eventually tothe round window

Fluid pressure waves are transmitted to cochlear ductcausing the basilar membrane to vibrate, which moves the inner ear hair cellsagainst the tectorial membrane.

Bending of the hair cells ultimately leads togeneration of nerve impulses.

Each segment of the basilar membrane is “tuned” for aparticular pitch – high-pitched near the oval window; low-pitched near thehelicotrema

Front 178

NREM Stage 1

Back 178

lasts 1-7 min: stage between wakefulness and sleep

Front 179

NREM Stage 2

Back 179

light sleep; first stage of true sleep;fragments of dreams

Front 180

NREM Stage 3

Back 180

occurs 20 minutes after falling asleep;moderately deep sleep; drop in body temp & BP

Front 181

NREM Stage 4

Back 181

deepest level of sleep

If sleepwalking occurs it isduring this stage

Front 182

NREM

Back 182

For 7-8hr night of rest, you willhave 3-5 episodes of REM sleep equaling 90-120 minutes.

Most dreaming occurs during REMsleep. Brain blood flow & oxygen usehigher during REM sleep than during intense activity while awake.

REM & NREM alternatethroughout the night with REM occurring about every 90 minutes.

Front 183

In what part of sleep does most of the dreaming occur?

Back 183

REM sleep. Brain blood flow & oxygen use higher duringREM sleep than during intense activity while awake.

Front 184

How many stages of NREM are there? And lasting for how long?

Back 184

4.

< 1 hour.

Front 185

Where are cold receptors found?

Back 185

stratum basale

Front 186

where are warm receptors found?

Back 186

dermis

Front 187

what is referred pain?

Back 187

pain that the brain interprets ascoming from an area other than its origin

Front 188

First-Order Neurons

Back 188

Conduct impulses from receptors to the brain stem orspinal cord.

Cranial nerves go to the brain stem.

- Sensory impulses from face, mouth, teeth, eyes.

Spinal nerves go to the spinal cord.

Sensory impulses from neck, trunk, limbs and posterioraspect of head

Front 189

Second-Order Neurons

Back 189

Conduct impulses from brain stemand spinal cord to the THALAMUS.

The axons of second-order neuronswill DECUSSATE (cross-over) in the brain stem or spinal cord beforeascending to the thalamus.

- In other words, the sensory inputfrom one side of the body will go to the thalamus on the opposite side of thebrain.

Front 190

Third-Order Neurons

Back 190

Conduct impulses from thalamus to the primarysomatosensory area of the cortex on the SAME side

Front 191

What is the blood brain barrier?

Back 191

Tight junctions between endothelial cells ofblood vessels in NS.

Front 192

What is the function of the blood brain barrier?

Back 192

Astrocyte processes wrap around capillaries toprotect CNS neurons from harmful substances in blood by secreting chemicalsthat maintain the permeability of the endothelial cells of the capillaries.

Front 193

Where is CSF?

Back 193

Liquid that bathes the CNS. Reabsorbed by arachnoid villi. CSF isproduced & absorbed at approximately the same rate

Front 194

What is CSF primarily composed of?

Back 194

Primarily water but also carries O2,glucose, cations, anions,WBCs, etc.

Front 195

How does CSF flow through the brain?

Back 195

through cavities known as ventricles.

- lateral ventricle x2

- third ventricle

- fourth ventricle

Front 196

Where is CSF produced?

Back 196

by choroid plexuses

Front 197

where is CSF absorbed?

Back 197

arachnoid villi.

Front 198

What are parathyroid hormones (PTH) and how are they involved in how calcium in the blood is regulated?

Back 198

they are secreted by parathyroid glands; INCREASES bloodcalcium levels.

operate via negative feedback system

Front 199

What is calcitriol and how is it involved in how calcium in the blood is regulated?

Back 199

activeform of vitamin D whose formation is stimulated by PTH; INCREASES blood calciumlevels

Front 200

What is calcitonin and how is it involved in how calcium in the blood is regulated?

Back 200

secretedby parafollicular cells of thyroid gland; inhibits osteoclastic activitythereby DECREASING blood calcium levels

Front 201

what happens when blood levels of calcium decrease?

Back 201

osteoclasts help to release calcium

Front 202

what happens when blood levels of calcium increase?

Back 202

osteoblasts help to absorb calcium

Front 203

Mechanoreceptors

Back 203

detect mechanical stimuli (egtouch, pressure, etc.

Front 204

Thermoreceptors

Back 204

detect changes in temperature

Front 205

Nociceptors

Back 205

detect painful stimuli

Front 206

Photoreceptors

Back 206

detect light striking the retina

Front 207

Chemoreceptors

Back 207

detect chemicals in mouth, nose and bodily fluids

Front 208

Osmoreceptors

Back 208

detect changes in osmotic pressure of bodily fluids

Front 209

list the sensory receptors that are grouped by the type of stimulus detected by receptor

Back 209

Mechanoreceptors

Thermoreceptors

Nociceptors

Photoreceptors

Chemoreceptors

Osmoreceptors

Front 210

Sensory receptors grouped by microscopic structure

Back 210

Free nerve endings

Encapsulated

Separate Cells

Front 211

Free Nerve Endings

Back 211

bare dendrites that lack structural specialization.

Ex: pain, temperature, tickle, itch, some touch.

Front 212

Encapsulated

Back 212

dendrites enclosed in CT capsule with distinct microscopic structure

Ex: pressure (Pacinian corpuscle), vibration, some touch

Front 213

Separate cells

Back 213

receptors for special sense; cells which synapse with sensory neurons

Ex: hair cells for hearing, gustatory receptor cells in taste buds, photoreceptors for vision.

Front 214

Sensory receptors grouped by location of the receptors

Back 214

exteroreceptors

interoreceptors

proprioreceptors

Front 215

Exteroreceptors

Back 215

located at/near external body surface; monitor EXTERNAL environment

Ex: hearing, vision, smell, taste, touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, pain

Front 216

Interoreceptors

Back 216

aka visceroreceptors; located in bv, organs, mm, nervous system; monitor INTERNAL environment

NOT CONSCIOUSLY PERCEIVED

Front 217

Proprioreceptors

Back 217

located in mm, tendons, joints, and inner ear. Provide info about body position, mm length & tension

Front 218

3 main layers of skin

Back 218

epidermis (avascular)

dermis (vascular)

sub Q (hypodermis)

Front 219

stratum corneum

Back 219

20layers of dead keratinocytes

Front 220

Stratum lucidum

Back 220

present only in thick skin (fingertips, palms, soles)

Front 221

Stratum granulosum

Back 221

are filled with granules of keratin.

Front 222

Stratum spinosum

Back 222

layer of 8–10 keratinocytes

Front 223

Stratum basale

Back 223

the deepest layer, undergoes continual cell division

Front 224

basic spinal cord anatomy

Back 224

Spinal cord extends from medullaoblongata to the superior border of L2.

The meninges extend down to S2

Front 225

major landmarks of the spinal cord

Back 225

Cervical enlargement

Lumbar enlargement

Conus medullaris

Filum terminale

Front 226

Cervical enlargement

Back 226

nerves for upper limbs

Front 227

Lumbar enlargement

Back 227

nerves for lower limbs

Front 228

Conus medullaris

Back 228

where spinal cord ends

Front 229

Filum terminale

Back 229

extension of pia mater that fuses with arachnoid & dura mater to anchor spinal cord to coccyx

Front 230

ABSOLUTErefractory period

Back 230

absolutely no action potentials can be generated.

Front 231

RELATIVE refractory period

Back 231

a larger-than-normal action stimulus can generate action potential

Front 232

what are graded potentials

Back 232

usedin short distance neuron electrical signaling communication

Front 233

what are action potentials

Back 233

used in long distance neuron electrical signaling communication

Front 234

Whatis the “All or Nothing” principle?

Back 234

The all-or-none law is the principle that the strength by which a nerve or muscle fiber responds to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. If that stimulus exceeds the threshold potential, the nerve or muscle fiber will give a complete response; otherwise, there is no response.

Front 235

what is neurolemma?

Back 235

the thin sheath around a nerve axon (including myelin where this ispresent).

Front 236

what is the function of neurolemma?

Back 236

found ONLY in PNS, allows for regeneration of axon

Neurolemma (alsoknown as neurilemma or sheath of Schwann (Schwann's Sheath))is the outermost nucleated cytoplasmic layer of Schwann cells that surroundsthe axon of the neuron. It forms the outermost layer of the nerve fiber in theperipheral nervous system.

Front 237

how is white matter organized in the CNS?

Back 237

tracts

Front 238

how is white matter organized in the PNS?

Back 238

nerves

Front 239

what is the cauda equine?

Back 239

Spinalnerves gather inferiorly near filum terminale à cauda equina (“horse’s tail”)

Front 240

4 properties of muscular tissue

Back 240

excitability

contractility

extensibility

elastcitity

Front 241

excitability

Back 241

Abilityof muscular tissue to respond to stimuli.

Respondsto stimuli by generating action potentials.

Propertyof both muscle and nerve cells. 


Front 242

contractility

Back 242

Abilityof muscular tissue to contract in response to an action potential.

Duringcontraction, the muscles may or may not shorten.

Front 243

Extensibility

Back 243

Ability of muscular tissue to stretch.

Smooth muscle is subjected to the greatest amount of stretching

Front 244

Elasticity

Back 244

Ability of muscular tissue to return to original size post-contraction.

Front 245

Beable to describe all the layers that must be penetrated in order to reach themuscle.

Back 245

Stratum Corneum

Stratum Lucidum

Stratum Granulosum

Stratum Spinosum

Stratum Basale

Basement Membrane

Papillary Dermis

Reticular Dermis

Hypodermis/Subcutaneous Layer

Fascia

MUSCLE

Front 246

three layers of CT

Back 246

epimysium, perimysium, endomysium

Front 247

epimysium

Back 247

denseirregular CT , surrounds groups of fascicles.


Front 248

Perimysium

Back 248

dense irregular CT, surrounds groups of muscle fibers separating them into FASCICLES.

Front 249

Endomysium

Back 249

mostly reticular fibers, surrounds muscle fibers

Front 250

contractile proteins

Back 250

myosin (thick)- contains ATP binding siteon head

actin (thin)- contains binding sites formyosin

Front 251

regulatory proteins

Back 251

tropomyosin

troponin

Front 252

what is glaucoma?

Back 252

Aqueoushumor drained into canal of schlemm.

Blockage of drainage can lead toglaucoma

Acondition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss ofsight

Front 253

four major plexuses

Back 253

cervical

brachial

lumbar

sacral

Front 254

cervical plexus

Back 254

formed primarily by anterior rami of nerves C1-C4

Front 255

Brachial

Back 255

Formed from anterior rami of nerves C5-C8 and T1

Front 256

Lumbar

Back 256

Formed from anterior rami of nerves L1-L4

Front 257

Sacral

Back 257

Formed from ant. Roots of nerves L4-L5 & S1-S4

Front 258

connective tissue coverings

Back 258

endoneurium

perineurium

epineurium

Front 259

endoneurium

Back 259

convers individual acons

Front 260

perineurium

Back 260

covers groups of axons known as fascicles

Front 261

epinerium

Back 261

covers entire nerve

Fuses with duramater as nerve passes through IVF

Front 262

Primary Somatosensory

Back 262

receives impulses for touch, pressure, vibration, itch, tickle, temperature, pain, proprioception

Front 263

Primary Motor Area

Back 263

controls voluntary skeletal muscle contractions

Front 264

major landmarks of the brain

Back 264

Brain Stem (continuousw/spinal cord)

Medulla oblongata, Pons, Midbrain

Cerebellum

Diencephalon

Thalamus, Hypothalamus,Epithalamus

Cerebrum

Front 265

brain stem

Back 265

(continuous w/spinal cord)

Medulla oblongata, Pons, Midbrain

Front 266

Diencephalon

Back 266

Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus

Front 267

12 cranial nerves

Back 267

CN I: olfactory(S) - smelling

CN II: optic(S) - vision

CN III: oculomotor(M) – eye movement

CN IV: trochlear(M) – eye movement

CN V: trigeminal(B)

CN VI: abducens(M) – eye movement

CN VII: facial(B) – facial expression, taste

CN VIII: vestibulocochlear(S) – hearing, equilibrium

CN IX: glossopharygneal(B) – taste, swallowing

CN X:vagus (B) – taste, swallowing, GI motility

CN XI: accessory(M) – movement of head and pec girdle

CN XII: hypoglossal(M) – speech and swallowing

Front 268

CN I

Back 268

olfactory (S)

Front 269

CN II

Back 269

optic (S)

Front 270

CN III

Back 270

oculomotor (M)

Front 271

CN IV

Back 271

trochlear (M)

Front 272

CN V

Back 272

trigeminal (b)

Front 273

CN VI

Back 273

abducens (M)

Front 274

CN VII

Back 274

facial (B)

Front 275

CN VIII

Back 275

vestibulocochlear (S)

Front 276

CN IX

Back 276

glossopharygneal (B)

Front 277

CN X

Back 277

vagus (B)

Front 278

CN XI

Back 278

accessory (M)

Front 279

CN XII

Back 279

hypoglossal (M)

Front 280

olfactory nerve

Back 280

smelling

Front 281

optic nerve

Back 281

vision

Front 282

oculomotor nerve

Back 282

eye movement

Front 283

abducens nerve

Back 283

eye movement

Front 284

facial nerve

Back 284

facial expression, taste

Front 285

vestibulocochlear nerve

Back 285

hearing, equilibrium

Front 286

glossopharyngeal nerve

Back 286

taste, swallowing

Front 287

vagus nerve

Back 287

taste, swallowing, GI motility

Front 288

accessory nerve

Back 288

movement of head and pec girdle

Front 289

hypoglossal nerve

Back 289

speech and swallowing

Front 290

What is RAS?

Back 290

The ascending portion is known as the reticular activating system (RAS).

- Receives stimuli from many sensoryorgans (vision, auditory, etc) which project to cerebral cortex --> no receptors for sense of smell

- Most important function: CONSCIOUSNESS

Recall that the Reticular Activating System (RAS) has a huge role in consciousness,arousal, & wakefulness.

- Stimulating the RAS results in increased activity of the cerebral cortex. (Stimuli: pain, touch & pressure on skin, movement of limbs, bright lights, loud noises)

- No input from olfactory receptors à hence the need for smoke alarms!!!

Front 291

3 groups of integrative functions

Back 291

Sleep & Wakefulness

Learning & Memory

Emotional Responses (recall limbicsystem)

Front 292

lacrimal apparatus

Back 292

produces tears from lacrimal gland and drainsthem from the eye via lacrimal canaliculi and nasolacrimal duct inside nasalcavity

Front 293

flow of tears

Back 293

Lacrimal gland

Lacrimal ducts

Superior or inferiorlacrimal canal

Lacrimal sac

Nasolacrimal duct

Nasal cavity

Front 294

What muscles are found in the ear? Whatis their function?

Back 294

Tensortympani and stapedius muscles – protect ear by limiting movement and vibrationof the TM and stapes, respectively

Front 295

Know where olfactory receptors are foundand what part of the receptors are triggered by odorants. What type of neuron(unipolar, bipolar, Multipolar) are olfactory receptors? Where do the axons ofthe olfactory receptors project?

Back 295

Each olfactory receptor is a bipolarneuron with its dendrite & axon projecting through the cribiform plate. Receptorsare only found in the superior portion of the nasal cavity.

- 10-100MILLION receptors in nose

- Olfactoryreceptors are considered first-order neurons.

Olfactory hairsof the receptors are triggered by inhaled chemicals (odorants).

- Transduction:conversion of a stimulus (odorant) into a graded potential in a sensoryreceptor.

The graded potential triggered by theodorant results in nerve impulse(s).

- Odorantbinds to olfactory receptor in plasma membrane of olfactory hair.

- Olfactoryreceptor coupled to G protein which activates adenylate cyclase and subsequentproduction of the second messenger cAMP.

- cAMPopens sodium channels resulting in depolarization and nerve impulse generation.

- Axonsof olfactory receptors extend through olfactory foramina in cribiform plate.

- Theseaxons form the olfactory nerves, which extend posteriorly to form the olfactorytract.

- The axons of theolfactory tract then project to the primary olfactory area of the cerebralcortex, to the limbic system, or to the hypothalamus.