Bio 2 Test 2

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Virus

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a small infectious particle that consists of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat.

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Host Cell

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a cell that is infected by a virus

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Host Range

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the number of species and cell types they can infect.

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Capsid

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a protein coat that encloses a genome consisting of one or more molecules of nucleic acid.

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Viral Envelope

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Encloses the capsid and consists of a lipid bilayer that is derived from the plasma membrane of the host cell and embedded with virally encoded spike glycol-proteins (spikes or peplomers).

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Bacteriophages (Phages)

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viruses that infect bacteria.

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Viral Genome

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the genetic material of a virus.

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Viral Reproductive Cycle

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a series of steps used to express viral genes, resulting in the production of new viruses, during a viral infection.

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Itegrase

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an enzyme encoded by a gene, found in viruses that are capable of integration.

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Prophage

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the phage DNA in a bacterium

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Lysogenic Cycle

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The growth cycle of a bacteriophage consisting of integration, prophage replication, and excision.

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Reverse Transcriptase

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a viral enzyme that is carried within the capsid and released into the host cell along with viral RNA.

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Provirus

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the viral DNA in a eukaryotic cell.

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Retroviruses

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Viruses that follow reverse transcriptase

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Lyctic Cycle

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the growth cycle of a bacteriophage in which the production and release of new viruses causes the host cell to lyse.

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Latent

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an inactive provirus or prophage.

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Temperate Phage

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a bacteriophage that can enter either the lysogenic or lytic cycle.

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Virulent Phage

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a bacteriophage that can participate only in the lytic cycle.

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Episome

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a genetic element that can replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA but also can occasionally replicate into the chromosomal DNA.

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Emerging Virus

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viruses that have arisen recently, or have a greater probably to cause infection.

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Human Immunodefiency Virus

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A retrovirus that is the causative agent of AIDS.

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Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

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A disease caused by the HIV virus that leads to a defect in the immune system of infected individuals.

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Viroid

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An RNA particle that infects plant cells.

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Prions

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infectious particles that cause a group of rare, fatal brain diseases humans and other mammals.

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Nucleoid Range

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A site in a bacterial cell where the genetic material (DNA) is located.

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Loop Domains

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Chromosomal segments that are folded into loops.

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DNA Supercoiling

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A method of compacting chromosomes through the formation of additional coils around the long, thin DNA molecule.

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Plasmids

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Small, circular pieces of DNA that exist separate from the bacterial chromosome.

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Bacterial Colony

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A clone of genetically identical cells formed from a single cell.

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Binary Fission

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Cell division of a bacterial cell, resulting in 2 daughter cells.

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Strain

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A lineage that has genetic differences compared to another strain.

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Gene Transfer (Genetic Transfer)

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genetic material (DNA) is transferred from one bacterial cell to another.

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Conjugation

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Direct physical interaction between two bacterial cells. One bacterium acts as a donor and transfers DNA to a recipient cell.

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Transformation

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DNA that is released into the environment is taken up by another bacterial cell.

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Transduction

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When a virus infects a bacterial cell and then transfers some of that cell's DNA to another bacterium.

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Fertility Factor (F Factor)

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A type of bacterial plasmid that can be transferred to recipient strains through conjugation.

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Sex Pilli

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A pilli (appendage that attaches to surfaces and each other) that is made by F+ cells and only bind to F- cells.

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Competent

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Bacterial strains that naturally do not have the ability to take up DNA and have genes that encode proteins.

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Horizontal Gene Transfer

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An organism incorporates genetic material from another organism without being the offspring of that organism.

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Acquired Antibiotic Resistance

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the common phenomenon of a previously susceptible strain becoming resistant to a specific antibiotic.

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Archae and Bacteria

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two domains of life that prokaryotic microbes can be classified in.

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Extremophiles

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organisms that occur primarily in extreme habitats.

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Hyperthermophiles

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an organism that thrives in extremely hot temperatures.

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Halophiles

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organisms that occupy evaporation ponds used to produce salt from seawater.

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Gas Vesicles

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a cytoplasmic structure used to adjust the buoyancy of cyanobacteria and certain other bacteria that live in aquatic habitats.

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Cocci

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sphere shaped bacterial cells.

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Bacilli

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rod shaped bacterial cells.

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Vibrios

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comma-shaped bacterial cells

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Spirochaetes

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spiral-shaped bacterial cell that is flexible

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Spirilli

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spiral-shaped bacterial cell that is rigid.

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Biofilm

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aggregations of microorganisms that secrete adhesive mucilage, thereby gluing themselves to surfaces.

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Quorum Sensing

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A mechanism by which prokaryotic cells are able to communicate by chemical means when they reach a critical population size.

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Peptidoglycan

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a polymer composed of carbohydrates cross-linked by peptides that is important to most bacterial cell walls.

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Lipopolysaccharides

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Lipids with covalently bound carbohydrates; prevalent in the thin, outer envelope that encloses the cell walls of a Gram-negative bacteria.

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Gram Stain

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developed by Hans Christian Gram; a procedure used to more easily detect and distinguish bacteria.

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Flagella

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Relatively long cell appendages that facilitate cellular movement or the movement of extracellular fluids.

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Pili

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a threadlike cell surface structure used to twitch or glide along surfaces.

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Akinete

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a thick-walled, food-filled cell produced by certain bacteria or protists that enables them to survive unfavorable conditions in a dormant state.

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Endospore

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A cell with a tough coat that is produced in certain bacteria and then released when the enclosing bacterial cell dies and breaks down

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Autotrophs

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organisms that are able to produce all or most of their own organic compounds from inorganic sources.

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Photoautotrophs

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are able to use light as a source of energy for the synthesis of organic compounds

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Chemoautotrophs

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are able to use energy obtained by chemical modifications of inorganic compounds to synthesize organic compounds.

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Heterotrophs

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organisms that require at least one organic compound to feed.

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Photoheterotrophs

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are able to use light energy to generate ATP, but they must take in organic compounds from their environment.

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Chemoheterotrophs

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must obtain organic molecules for both energy and as a carbon source.

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Obligate Aerobes

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microorganisms that require oxygen.

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Obligate Anaerobes

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Microorganisms that are poisoned by oxygen.

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Facultative Anaerobes

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a microorganism that can use oxygen in aerobic respiration, obtain energy via anaerobic fermentation, or use inorganic chemical reactions to obtain energy.

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Aerotolerant Anaerobe

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a microorganism that does not use oxygen but it is not poisoned by it either.

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Diazotrophs

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a bacterium that fixes nitrogen.

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Nitrogen Fixation

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a specialized metabolic process in which certain prokaryotes use the enzyme nitrogenase to convert inert atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonia.

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Heterocysts

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specialized cells that accomplish nitrogen fixation.

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Producers

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Synthesize the organic compounds used by other organisms for food.

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Decomposers

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organisms that break down dead organisms and organic matter, releasing minerals for uptake by living things.

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Methanongens

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prokaryotes that covert CO2, methyl groups, or acetate to methane and release it from their cells.

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Methanotrophs

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prokaryotes that consume methane.

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Symbiosis

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an organism that lives in close association with one or more other organisms.

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Mutualism

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when symbiotic associations are beneficial to both partners.

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Parasitism

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when one partner benefits at the expense of another.

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Syntrophy

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mutualistic bacteria that live in symbioses of two or a few other bacteria species that supply each other with essential nutrients.

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Consortia

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microbes that occur in larger communities.

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Microbiome

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many types of microbes that exist on human skin and in our digestive and reproductive systems.

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Parasites

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organisms that obtain organic compounds from living hosts.

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Pathogens

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diseases that are caused by parasites in the host.

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Koch's Postulates

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a series of steps used to determine whether a particular organism causes a specific disease.
Presence of a suspected pathogen must correlate with the occurrence of symptoms
The pathogen must be isolated from an infected host and grown in a pure culture, if possible.
Cells from the pure culture should cause disease when inoculated into a healthy host.
One should be able to isolate the same pathogen from the second infected host.

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Protist

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eukaryotes that live in moist habitats and are mostly microscopic in size.

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Algea

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protists that are generally photoautotrophic.

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Protozoa

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diverse heterotropich protists.

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Fungus-like Protists

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heterotrophic protists that often resemble true fungi in having threadlike filamentus bodies and absorbing nutrients from the environment.

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Phytoplankton

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microscopic photosynthetic protists that float in the water column or actively move through water.

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Periphyton

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communities of microorganisms that are attached by mucilage to underwater surfaces such as rocks, sands, and plants.

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Macroalgae

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Photosynthetic protist that can be seen with the unaided eye; seaweeds.

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Flagellates

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A protist that uses one or more flagella to move in water or cause water motions useful in feeding.

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Cilia

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cell appendages that have the same internal structure as flagella and function like flagella, to ficilitate cell movement; cilia are shorter and more numerous on cells than flagella.

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Ciliates

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a protist that moves by means of cilia, which are tine hairlike extensions that occur on the outside of cells and have the same internal structure as flagella.

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Amoebae

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a protist that move by pseudopodia that evolves by extending cytoplasm into filaments or lobes.

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Super Groups

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one of the seven subdivisions of the domain: Eukarya.

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Phagocytosis

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a form of endocytosis that envolves the formation of a membrane vesicle, called a phagocytic vacuole, which engulfs a particle such as a bacterium.

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Endosymbiosis

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a symbiotic relationship in which a smaller species, the symbiont, lives within the larger species.

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Endosymbiont

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a smaller species that lives within a larger species.

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Host

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the prey organism in a parasitic association.

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Primary Plastids

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a plastid that originated from a prokaryote as a result of primary endosymbiosis

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Primary Endosymbiosis

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the process by which a eukaryotic host cell acquires prokaryotic endosymbionts. Mitochondria and the plastids of green and red algae are examples of organelles that originated with primary endosymbiosis.

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Secondary Plastids

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a plastid that is originated by the symbiotic incorporation of a eukaryotic cell containing a primary plastid into a eukaryotic host cell.

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Secondary Endosymbiosis

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a process that occurs when a eukaryotic host cell acquires a eukaryotic endosymbiont having a primary plastid.

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Terrtiary Plastids

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a plastid acquired by the incorporation into a host cell of an endosymbiont having a secondary plastid.

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Terrtiary Endosymbiosis

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the acquisition by eukaryotic protist host cells of plastids from cells that possess secondary plastids.

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Phagotrophs

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an organism that specialises in phagotrophy (particle feeding by means of phagocytosis as a form of nutrition).

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Osmotrophs

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an organism that relies on osmotrophy (uptake of small organic molecules as a form of nutrition).

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Mixotrophs

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an organism that is able to use autotrophy as well as phagotrophy or osmotrophy to obtain organic nutrients.

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Toxins

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compounds that have adverse effects in living organisms, often produced by various protists and plant species

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Cysts

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thick, protective walls and can remain dormant through periods of unfavorable climate or low food availability.

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Zygotic Life Cycle

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the type of life cycle of most unicellular protists in which haploid cells develop into gametes. Two gametes then fuse to produce a diploid zygote.

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Sporic Life Cycle(Alternation of Generations)

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the phenomenon that occurs in plants and some protists in which the life cycle alternates between multicellular diploid organisms, called sporophytes, and multicellular haploid organisms, called gametophytes.

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Gametic Life Cycle

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a type of life cycle where all cells, excep the gametes, are diploid, and gametes are produced by meiosis.

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Substrate

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the organic compounds, such as soil or rotting wood, that fungi uses as food.

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Absorptive Nutrition

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the process whereby an organism uses enzymes to digest organic materials and absorbs the resulting small food molecules into it's cells.

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Chitin

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a tough, nitrogen containing polysaccharide that forms the external skeleton of many insects and the cell walls of fungi.

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Mycelium

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a fungal body composed of microscopic branch filaments known as hyphae.

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Hyphae

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a microscopic, branch filament of a body of fungus.

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Fruiting Bodies

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the visible fungal reproductive structures that are composed of densely packed hyphae that typically grow out of the substrate.

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Spores

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a haploid, typically single-celled reproductive structure of fungi and plants that is dispersed into the environment and is able to grow into a new fungal mycelium or plant gametophyte in a suitable habitat.

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Septa

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a cross wall; examples include: the cross walls that divide the hyphae of most fungi into many small cells and the structure that seperates the old and new chambers of a nautilus.

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Aseptate

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the conditon of not being partitioned into smaller cells; usually refers to fungal cells.

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Intranuclear Spindle

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a spindle that forms within an in tact nucleur envelope during nuclear division in fungi and some protists.

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Conidia

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asexual spores found at the tips of hyphae.

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Yeast

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a fungus that can occur as a single cell and that reproduces by budding.

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Plasmogamy

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The fusion of the cytoplasm between two gametes.

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Karyogamy

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the process of nuclear fusion.

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Dikaryotic

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the occurrence of two genetically distinct nuclei in the cells of fungal hyphae after mating has occurred.

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Aflatoxins

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Fungal toxins that cause liver cancer and are a major health concern worldwide.

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Dimorphic Fungi

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fungi that can exist in two different morphological forms.

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Mycorrhizae

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association between the hyphae of certain fungi and the roots of plants.

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Endomycorrhizae

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partnerships between plants and fungi in which the fungal hyphae grow into the spaces between root cell walls and plasma membranes.

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Arbascular Mycorrhizae

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symbiotic associations between AM fungi and the roots of vascular plants.

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Ectomycorrhizae

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beneficial interactions between temperate forest tress and soil fungi.

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Endophytes

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a mutualistic fungus that lives compatibly within the tissues of various types of plants.

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Lichens

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the mutualistic association between particular fungi and certain photosynthetic green algae of cyanobacteria. This association results in a body form distinctive from that of either partner alone.

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Soredia

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an asexual reproductive structure produced by lichens consisting of small clumps of hyphae surrounding a few algae cells that can disperse in wind currents.

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Chytrids

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simplest fungi; among the earliest fungi to appear. Commonly found in aquatic habitats and moist soil where they produce flagellate reproductive cells.

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Zygomycetes

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a phylum of fungi that produces distinctive large zygospores as the result of sexual reproduction.

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Sporangia

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structures that produce and disperse the spores of plants, fungi, or protists.

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Gametangia

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specialized structures produced by many land plants in which developing gametes are protected by a jacket of tissue.

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Zygospore

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a dark-pigmented, thick-walled spore that matures within the zygosporangium of zygomycete fungi during sexual reproduction.

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AM Fungi

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a phylum of fungi that forms mycorrhizai associations with plants.

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Ascomycetes

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a phylum of fungi that produce sexual spores in saclike asci located at the surfaces of fruiting bodies known as ascocarps.

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Ascocarps

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the type of fruiting body produced by ascomycete fungi.

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Ascopores

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the type of sexual spore produced by the ascomycete fungi.

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Asci

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fungal sporongia shaped like sacs that produce and release sexual ascospores.

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Basidiomycetes

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a phylum of fungi where sexual spores are produced on the surfaces of club-shaped structures.

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Basidia

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club-shaped cells that produce sexual spores in basidiamycete fungi.

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Basidiospores

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a sexual spore of the basidiomycete fungi.

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Basidiocarps

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the type of fruiting body produced by basidiomycete fungi.

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Clamp Connections

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in basidiomycete fungi, a structure that helps distribute nuclei during cell division.