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97 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is photosynthesis?
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The production of glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight
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What is the difference between a producer and a consumer?
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producers– organisms that make their own food without consuming organic molecules for energy or carbon
consumers – organisms that must consume organic molecules for energy, carbon, or both to survive |
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What is the difference between an autotroph and heterotroph?
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Autotrophs– organisms that make their own food without consuming organic molecules for energy or carbon
Heterotrophs – organisms that must consume organic molecules for energy, carbon, or both to survive |
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Where are stomata, and what do they allow in and out of a leaf?
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Stomata (many stoma)– pores that allow gas exchange (CO2 in, O2 out) with the environment.
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What are the compartments of a chloroplast, and what separates them?
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3 compartments:
Two covering membranes, inner membrane contains the stroma, a thick fluid. Membranous stacks of disks called grana made up of thylakoids in the stroma. The thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll and many enzymes needed for photosynthesis |
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What are the 2 stages of photosynthesis?
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"Photo Phase" and "Synthesis Phase"
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What are the inputs and outputs of the two stages of photosynthesis? where does each go? What function does each input and output serve?
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Which stage of photosynthesis produces oxygen?
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photo phase
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Which stage of photosynthesis produces sugars?
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Synthesis phase
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What does it mean when carbon Is "fixed"? Which enzyme does this job in a c 3 plant?
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Carbon fixation – incorporation of carbon from an inorganic form (usually gaseous CO2) into solid organic molecules
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Where do the 2 photosynthesis stages occur in the chloroplast?
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Photo Phase = Light Reactions, occur in Thylakoid membrane
Synthesis Phase = no light required, occur in stroma of chloroplast |
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Why does chlorophyll appear green and carotenoids yellow-orange to us? Where are the other colors of light going?
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Chlorophyll absorbs light energy in the violet blue and red areas and reflects the green areas.
carotenoids absorb in other areas of the spectrum to harvest more energy or protect chlorophyll |
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What happens to light that strikes an object?
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Every object has particular wavelength of light that is absorbed or reflects
when energy from sunlight strikes an object is the energy can be absorbed making the object warmer or reflected allowing us to see the object |
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What is the function of photosynthetic pigments?
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pigments are organized in photosystems in the thylakoid membrane
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What are PSI and PSII, where are they, what do they do?
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Photo systems one and two are beds of pigments and reaction centers located in the thylakoid membrane which harvest light and pass it along using electrons gained from splitting water
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What is a reaction center?
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ATP and NADPH are from light reactions.
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How is ATP generated during the light reactions?
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Energy is stored in the light reactions between photosystems 2 & 1 ETC build up proton gradient inside grana ATP synthase makes ATP from the energy
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how is NADP+ reduced during the light reactions?
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After photosystem 1 electrons reduce NADP + the final electron acceptor
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How do c4 and CAM plants solve problems associated with desiccation in a terrestrial environment while gaining enough carbon dioxide to survive?
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C4 plants are spatial separations of air and the Calvin cycle spatially
in one area co2 fixed to 4C compound which shuttle the co2 over to Rubisco, the Calvin cycle in special cells. it conserves water and reduces photorespiration. better in hot climates and requires energy to recycle PEP carboxylase. |
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What is the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction?
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Sexual requires 2 partners
asexual requires only 1 parent |
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how does binary fission work and what cells do this?
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Prokaryotic cell division is called binary fission.
Prokaryotes have circular chromosomes and usually one copy of the gene (haploid) |
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What is the cell doing during interphase in a eukaryotic cells?
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The cell is doing its job within the organism.
it is in interphase more than 90% of the cell cycle. |
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what is a chromatin and a chromosome?
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Chromatin: DNA and protein fibers which are not condensed together. chromosomes condense for cell division.
chromosome: a separate strand of DNA which contains hundreds of particular genes. |
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What is a sister chromatid?
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The two identical copies of a chromosome resulting from DNA replication and held together by a centromere are sister chromatids
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what is a centromere and what does it bind together?
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Physical place at which the two identical sister chromatids are held together.
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What are the three functions of mitosis?
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Growth
replacement asexual reproduction |
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what is the single function of meiosis?
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sexual reproduction
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How is cytokinesis different in plants and animals?
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Animal cells: cleavage furrow forms, creating 2 daughter cells.
plant cells: vesicles carrying the cell wall material fuse between the two daughter nuclei forming cell plate, which eventually grows into the new cell wall. |
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in which phase of the cell cycle does an organism spend most of its time?
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Interphase.
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What are Anchorage dependency and density dependency and cell growth?
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Anchorage dependent: cells must be in contact with solid surface to divide.
Density dependency: cells growing on a surface grow until they form a single layer, then stop dividing. |
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what does the cell cycle regulate and how does it work?
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cells must be able to replicate themselves to allow organisms to grow or to replace damaged cells
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What is wrong with cancer cells?
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Cancer cells divide excessively because they do not have either density dependent inhibition or Anchorage dependency.
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what is a homologous chromosome how is that different from my sister chromatid?
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Homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes which contain genes for the same traits in the same place,s but may hold different instructions.
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what is the difference between a centrosome and a centromere?
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Centrosome is a structure within the cytoplasm which forms the spindle during cell division.
The centromere is the physical place at which the two identical sister chromatids are held together. |
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what is the spindle and what is it made out of?
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The spindle is made out of microtubules which emerged from the centrosome and attach to the centromeres of chromosomes.
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What is a locus?
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A locus, or loci, are physical positions along a particular chromosome where gene might be found.
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what is a gene?
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A gene is a stretch of DNA which codes for a particular protein.
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what is an allele?
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Alleles provide different or same instructions at a locus on homologous chromosomes.
A single allele for each gene is inherited from each parent. one allele can hide another (dominant and recessive) |
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how many copies of each family does chromosomes does a haploid diploid triploid and tetraploid organism have?
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Haploid one copy
diploid two copies triploid three copies tetraploid four copies |
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Describe chromosome number and movement during meiosis 1 & 2.
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four daughter cells are produced after meiosis 1 & 2
haploid cell has no homologous chromosome and no sister chromatids the only function of meiosis is sexual reproduction |
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what are gametes and how many chromosomes do they contain relative to a non reproductive cell?
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Gametes (egg and sperm cells) must be haploid to produce diploid offspring.
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what is fertilization?
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Fertilization is when the haploid sperm and egg cells fuse to form a diploid zygote
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how is mitosis different from meiosis?
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Mitosis is when sister chromatids line up together on the metaphase plate and later split up
meiosis is when homologous chromosomes line up together on the metaphase plate and sister chromatids stay together as each set moves in opposite directions |
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What is independent orientation of chromosomes?
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From independent orientation: eight million possibilities from one parent for egg and 8 million for sperm.
egg + sperm equals zygote, which is 70 trillion possible combinations. |
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what is random fertilization?
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the random combination of chromosomes resulting from pairing up 1 of the millions a possible chromosome combinations.
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what is crossover?
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Crossing over is another way of increasing genetic variation. homologous chromosomes can break and rejoin the junctions called chaismata the new chromosomes are a mixture of moms and dads alleles.
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what are Chiasmata?
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Homologous chromosomes can break and rejoin at junctions. these junctions are called Chaismata.
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what is a karyotype and what can it tell you?
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Depending on the type of karyotype you can tell what type of organism it is.
if it has 23 pairs then you would know that it's a humans because humans have 46 chromosomes: one half of your mom and one half of your dad making 23 pairs. You can also tell if the organism has any gene disorders like the 21 trisomy or having an extra 20 one chromosome which causes Down syndrome. You can also determine the gender of the organism if it has 2 X's or an XY. |
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Define autosomes
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Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome.
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define sex chromosomes
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A chromosome involved with determining the sex of an organism, typically one of two kinds.
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What is a nondisjunction and what are the consequences for the affected organism?
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a nondisjunction is the failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes, or sister chromatids, to separate normally during nuclear division. this results in an abnormal distribution of chromosomes in the daughter nuclei.
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what is heredity?
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Heredity is transmission of traits from one generation to another
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What is genetics?
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Genetics is the scientific study of heredity
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Define character
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Character is a heritable feature which varies among individuals, like height
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what is a Gene vs trait?
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A gene is a sequence of DNA that codes for a particular protein, While trait is a particular variant of a character, like tall or short.
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define allele
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An allele is one of two or more alternate forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.
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what was Mendel's experimental system and why was it used?
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Traits are inherited through discrete particles of inheritance that are unchanged from generation to generation.
Gregor Mendel studied garden peas because they have a short life span are easily controlled mating may outbreed or selfbreed, and have many qualitative characters. |
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In making genetic crosses, what does P mean?
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In making genetic crosses, P means parental
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In making genetic crosses, what does f1 mean?
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In making genetic crosses, f 1 means the product of two parents mating.
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In making genetic crosses, what does f2 mean?
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In making genetic crosses, f 2 means the product of f1 individuals Mating (self or sibling crosses)
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In making genetic crosses, what does true-breeding mean?
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In making genetic crosses, it's stuff like alleles being short bb or Big BB.
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In making genetic crosses, what does self-fertilization mean?
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f
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In making genetic crosses, what does test cross mean?
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A test cross is a meeting of an unknown genotype to a homozygous recessive to reveal the unknown genotype.
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How do you determine the outcome from a genetic cross?
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punnett squares
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What is a dominant vs recessive allele?
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Dominant traits vs Recessive Traits
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what is homozygous vs heterozygous?
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Homo: bb or BB.
heterozygous: Bb. |
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what is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
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genotype=Ab
Phenotype=color of hair |
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What is Mendel's principle of segregation and how many genes are involved?
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that allele pairs separate independently during the formation of gametes. This means that traits are transmitted to offspring independently of one another.
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what is Mendel's principle of independent assortment and how many genes are involved?
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Alleles for different genes assort independently during gamete formation.
for Mendel, he observed a 9:3:3:1 pattern. |
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How do we determine the probability of independent events occurring / the rules of multiplication and addition /
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OR (Multiply, I think)
AND (Addition) |
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Why did Mendel need large sample sizes?
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The larger sample you have, the less room for error when calculating.
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why are disease alleles more likely to be recessive?
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They are not as common in genes.
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explain the chromosome theory of inheritance.
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independent assortment: these 2 homologous chromosomes carry different alleles, and separate from each other during Meiosis I.
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what is incomplete dominance?
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One allele is not completely dominant over the other, resulting in an intermediate phenotype
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How does it work when you see multiple alleles for the same gene with codominance?
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codominance is when at least 2 alleles are both expressed when present (no simple dominant/ recessive relationship)
ex: AB Blood type. |
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what is pleiotropy?
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One gene influences more than 1 trait.
ex: albino people |
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what kinds of traits tend to be polygenic or quantitative?
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polygenic inheritance, or quantitive traits: many genes affect one another.
example: skin color is affected by many genes to produce the broad range of colors in humans, while Melanin production determines skin color. There are many genes which contribute to melanin production as well. |
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what is linkage between genes?
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Linked genes that are physically close on the chromosome are usually inherited together. The closer they are, the less likely there is to be crossover between them.
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How do you determine re combination frequency?
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recombinant Total / total specimens = recombination frequency.
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What are sex-linked traits and why are they more often expressed in males (or at least in mammals?)
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Sex-linked traits are those that are on the X chromosome cause linkage between gender and trait expression.
males always seem to have a different allele for them (ex: women have XX and men have XY) |
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What is a pedigree? (understand the relationships among individuals and how to figure out genotypes from them.)
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Pedigree is when you have a chart and you need to figure out what type of trait it is. example in the picture. pause the slide and look.
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Compare an Autotroph and heterotroph.
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Autotrophs: self feeders and producers, can fix carbon from an inorganic source.
Heterotrophs: must obtain nutrients from other living things. |
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What is cellular respiration?
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Cellular respiration is aerobic harvest of energy from organic fuels.
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What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration and which is more efficient?
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Aerobic = With oxygen.
Anaerobic = without oxygen. Aerobic Is more efficient. |
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What are the overview equations for photosynthesis and cellular respiration?
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Photosynthesis:
light energy to sugar 6CO2+6H20+light converts to C6H12O6+6O2 Respiration: Sugar used for for energy C6H12O6+6O2 converts to 6CO2+6H2O+ATP |
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Which of the following flow through the system they are in and which are recycled within their system: energy, electrons, NADH, coenzyme A, FADH2, CO2, glucose, oxygen.
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Check with group
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What is a redox reaction? (oxidation and reduction defined)
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Energy is moved via electrons in redox reactions
Oxidation: Loss of one or more electrons Reduction: Gain of one or more electrons |
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What molecules shuttle electrons around the cell?
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I think it's either NADH, FADH or ATP. check with group.
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What is the principal behind the ETC? (is it in large or small steps?)
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Small amounts of energy are released through the many steps in the ETC.
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What are the 2 ways ATP is actually phosphorylated in a cell?
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1) ETC (most common to make ATP)
2) Direct phosphate transfer |
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name the 4 basic stages of cellular respiration
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1) generation of ATP
2) Glycolysis 3) Pyruvate Grooming 4) Krebs Cycle |
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Where do the stages for cellular respiration take place in a cell?
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1) ATP generation takes place in ETC
2) Glycolysis takes place in Cytoplasm 3) Pyruvate Grooming takes place in cytoplasm and mitochondrial matrix 4) Krebs Cycle occurs in Mitochondrial Matrix (fluid) |
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which stage of cellular respiration produces the most ATP?
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The ETC (Stage 1)
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What are the inputs and outputs for the stages of cellular respiration?
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Stage 1) ?
Stage 2) Glucose to 2 ATP, 2NAHD, and 2 Pyruvate Stage 3) 2 Pyruvate, 2 NAD+ to 2 CO2, 2 acetic acid, 2 NADH Stage 4) 2C acetic acid, 2 ADP, 2 PO4, 6 NAD+, 2 FAD to 4 CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2. |
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Why is oxygen required to maximize ATP production?
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Best for survival
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What is the challenge for organisms that do not have oxygen, and how do they solve it?
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Other organisms Generate lactic acid by similar process of fermentation
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What is the difference between an obligate aerobe, an obligate anaerobe, and a facultative anaerobe?
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Obligate Aerobe: require oxygen to live
Obligate Anaerobe: Require no oxygen to live (Bacteria) Facultative Anaerobe: Can subsist using glycolysis alone if no oxygen is present (Yeast or E. Coli) |
