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43 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

Characteristics of Life

1. Reproduction, Growth and Development

2. Order, Pattern, or Bodyplan


3. Adaptation


4. Energy Utilization


5. Homeostasis


6. Cells and DNA

Hierarchy of life

Molecules, organelles, cells, tissue, organs, organ system, organism, population, community, environment, biosphere

Emergent properties

A new property that emerges with increasing structural complexity, life itself is an emergent property at the level of the cell

Subjective Knowledge

Comes from one’s own personal feelings and experience and assumed to be true; not subject to verification

Objective Knowledge

Based on careful observation and experimentation and subject to verification; can be refuted based on new information

Scientific Method

1. Question


2. Hypothesis


3. Experimentation


4. Analysis


5. Modify and repeat experiment

Evolution

Gradual, heritable changes in a biological population that make it better adapted to its environment.

Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment

Traits are inherited as discrete genes, one from each parent. Not necessarily linked or dependent on one another, can exist seperately.

DNA

Genetic material that encodes the properties(phenotype) of an organism and passes that information on to subsequent generations.

Structure of DNA

DNA is a double helix, whose individual strands are polymers of nucleotides. The structure suggests two important properties of DNA, stability and mutability.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

1. DNA serves as a template for its own synthesis (replication).


2. DNA serves as a template for RNA synthesis (transcription).


3. RNA serves as a template for protein synthesis (translation).

Atomic number

Number of protons; the atomic number is what determines the identity and properties of an element/atom.

Mass number

Number of protons and neutrons of an atom, averaged over all isotopes. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but with a different number of neutrons.

Electron configuration

Valence shell electrons determine chemical reactivity. Rule of eight, atoms in the second and third rows of the periodic table, which contain the most important elements for life, are most stable with eight electrons in their valence shell.

Covalent Bonds (polar and non-polar)

1. Sharing of Electrons


2. But where atoms are of very different electronegativities, the bond is polar and thus the electrons are not shared evenly

Ionic Bonds

1. Transfer of electrons


a. If an atom gains or loses an electron it becomes charged, negativelycharged if it gains an electron, positively charged if it loses an electron


b. Such a charged atom is called an ion.


2. Electrostatic interaction of ions

Hydrogen Bonds

1. In polar molecules, the partial positive charge of Hydrogen allows it to interact with partially negative atoms in neighboring molecules


2. Always involves Hydrogen and an electronegative atom like Oxygen or Nitrogen

Special Properties of Water

1. Cohesion, the tendency of molecules to sticktogether


2. Adhesion, the tendency of molecules to stickto other molecules


3. Temperature Moderation


a. High heat capacity, it takes a lot of energy to raise temperature even asmall amount because H-bonds constrain molecular motion.


b. High transition energy, water absorbs a lot of heat when it evaporatesbecause H-bonds have to be broken


4. Solvent of Life or Universal Solvent


a. Water’s very polar nature allows it to dissolve other polar molecules


b. Most biochemical reactions occur in water.


5. Water is denser as a liquid than as a solid.


6. Water exists in all three states on earth


7. Water is a liquid across a broad range of temperatures.



Hydrocarbons

Contains just Hydrogen and Carbon

Polysaccharides (Carbohydrates)

Functions as structure (cellulose, the most abundant biomolecule on earth), energy currency (glucose), energy storage (glycogen)

Monosaccharides (simple sugars)

Examples include glucose and fructose

Disaccharide

Sucrose is a disaccharide of two monosaccharides, glucose and fructose

Polysaccharides (starch and fiber)

Starches are polymers of glucose held together by α-glucosidic linkages.

Chitin

β-glucosidic polymer of modified glucose

Lipids

1. Functions


a. Structure, lipids are a major component of biological membranes.


b. Energy storage, triacylglycerol is the major form of stored energy inanimals


c. Signaling, steroids hormones derive from cholesterol


2. Fatty acids


a. Hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid group


b. Saturated(no double bonds) vs. unsaturated(double bonds)


c. Cis vs. trans double bonds. Trans double bonds do not generally occur in nature and adversely affect human health


3. Triacylglycerol (Fat,Triglyceride,TG)


a. Glycerol backbone+three fatty acids


b. Principle role is in energy storage


c. Secondary roles: insulation, moisture barrier, cushioning of internalorgans.


4. Phospholipids


a. Glycerol backbone + two fatty acids + phosphate-containing headgroup


b. Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic while phosphate head groups are hydrophilic.


c. Membrane structure – spontaneously forms bilayer in water.


5. Cholesterol


a. Integrate into membranes to increase rigidity b. Precursor for steroid hormones(e.g. sex steroids)


c. Precursor for bile acids, which aid in the digestion of fat.

Proteins

1. Functions: Enzymes and transporters, signaling (hormones, neurotransmitters, receptor), structure (e.g. collagen), immunity (antibodies)


2. Polymers of Amino acids


3. Peptide bond: Occurs between the carboxylic acid group of one amino acid and the amino group of the next amino acid


4. Protein Structure


a. Primary: amino acid sequence


b. Secondary: α-helix and β-sheet


c. Tertiary structure: various secondary structural elements combine to form a specific 3D structure


d. Quaternary: combination of two or more polypeptide chains to form one functional protein

Nucleic Acid

Store and transmit genetic information


1. Polymers of nucleotides


2. Nucleotides


a. Nitrogen base


b. Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)


c. Phosphate group


d. Polymerization–nucleic acids are synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction.


3. Base Pairing (complementarity): A:T(orU); G:C 4. Polymerization and base pairing explain DNA replication.

Three Domains of Life

1. Bacteria


2. Archea


3. Eukarya

Prokaryotes

Bacteria and Archea. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and are generally less complex (and smaller) cells that lack most of the organelles of eukaryotes.

Eukaryotes

There are four kingdoms of eukaryotes. The two we are most familiar with areplants and animals. Plants andanimals have many organelles in common but Chloroplasts, cell walls and a large centralvacuole are unique to plants.

Genetic Control

1. Nucleus: contains DNA and is the site where replication and transcription take place; nucleoli, site of ribosome assembly


2. Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis; may be free in the cytosolor attached to ER (rough ER)

Endomembrane system

1. Nuclear envelope


2. Rough ER


3. Smooth ER


4. Golgi apparatus


5. Vesicles, secretory vesicles, lysosomes and vacuoles

Energy Conversion

1. Mitochondria: generate ATP from energy derived from food


2. Chloroplasts: generate organic molecules using solar energy


3. Endosymbiosis: the idea that the chloroplast and mitochondrion are derived from prokaryotic life forms that were taken up by nucleus- and ER- containing eukaryotic cells.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surface

1. Microtubules, polymers of tubulin; responsible for segregation of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis.


2. Intermediate filaments, several different structures; anchor organelles.


3. Microfilaments (Actin filaments), polymers of actin; important in muscle and skeletal muscle contraction.


4. Flagellum/cilium


5. Extracellular matrix


a. Anchor points, strengthens tissue, e.g. skin


b. Tight junctions, prevent passage of solute, e.g. blood-brain barrier


c. Gap junctions – allow exchange of materials between cells, e.g. heart and developing embryo 6. Cell wall


a. Rigid, provides support and protection


b. Made of cellulose


c. Plasmodesmata, allow for exchange of materials between the cell and its environment.

Osmosis and Diffusion

1. Biological Membranes


a. Phospholipid bilayer


b. Fluid mosaic


c. Selectively permeable


2. Diffusion: Movement along a concentration gradient


3. Osmosis: diffusion of water down its concentration gradient through a selectively permeable membrane.


4. Passive Diffusion: doesn’t require energy or a protein channel; applies to molecules that can diffuse through the plasma membrane


5. Facilitated Transport: requires a protein channel but not energy; molecules that cannot diffuse through the plasma membrane.


6. Active Transport: Requires a protein channel and energy, usually in the form of ATP; molecules that are membrane impermeable and are moving up their concentration gradient.


7. Aquaporin: water channel; allows for rapid movement of water across the plasma membrane.

Exocytosis and Endocytosis

Exocytosis: Secretion, fusion of a vesicle with the plasma membrane to release its contents Endocytosis: an important mechanism by which cells take up nutrients or other materials (e.g. iron and cholesterol)

Chemical Reactions

1. Neither matter or energy is created or destroyed in a chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged to form new molecules.


2. Energy maybe released to or absorbed from the environment.


3. The study of this energy flow is called thermodynamics.


4. Kinetics is the studying of the rate at which a reaction occurs.

Kinetic Energy

The energy of motion, includes thermal energy and light

Potential Energy

Energy that matter possesses as a result of its position

Thermodynamics

Study of energy transfer between system and surroundings



Laws of Thermodynamics

1. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, only changed in form; energylost by the system is gained by the surroundings


2. Entropy: the degree of disorder or randomness in a system. A system undergoing reaction gains in entropy.

Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions

Exergonic: Releases energy


Endergonic: Absorbs energy

The ATP Cycle

1. Hydrolysis of ATP (adenosinetriphosphate) to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and phospate releases energy, which the cell uses to do much of its work.


2. The cell captures much of the energy of exergonic reactions in the form of ATP by using that energy to drive the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.