Bio 111 - Test 1

Front 1

emergent property

Back 1

a system that cannot be predicted of explained from antecedent conditions ex: never seen a car- given all the car parts

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Linnaeus

Back 2

-18th century, gentleman naturalist
-first person to propose a classification system
-for every species, there has to be a single specimen in a museum- type specimen
-describe it with two names- binomial system
-Family, genus, species

Front 3

Charles Lyell

Back 3

-geologist
-uniformitarianism: very slow symbol processes can produce great results
-earth has to be older than 5000 years...
-fossils also suggest that the earth is older than previously thought

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evolution

Back 4

lineage of organisms change through time, heritable variation leads to differential success in reproduction

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natural selection

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changes among individuals in a population (NOT species) are responsible for evolution

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Charles Darwin- conditions for natural selection

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mechanism for evolution- natural selection

1- there’s variations among individuals
2- non-random differences in survival and fertility
3- variation has to be inheritable
4- more offspring produced every generation than can survive

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Evidence for evolution

Back 7

-paleontology - looking up fossils, transitional fossils linking past and present
-vestigial organs: used to have a purpose but are now useless
-homologous structures: structures that are the same because of common descent - it suggests we came from a common ancestor
-embryonic development - during the early stages of development, species all look similar
-biogeography: related species exist on isolated islands
-bad design

Front 8

Darwin's Principles

Back 8

1) Evolution- lineage of organisms change through time
2) common descent - all life is related in one tree
3) gradualism - differences among organisms evolve by innumerable small steps through intermediary forms
4)populational speciation - evolution occurs by changes in the proportion of individuals within a population that differ in one or more characteristics
-variation already in population, environment change, fitness allows more to reproduce and that variation becomes more popular
5) Natural selection - changes among individuals in a population (NOT species) are responsible for evolution

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Heritability

Back 9

correlation of offspring build up to parent’s build up

Front 10

fitness

Back 10

organisms ability to pass on its genes (ability to produce surviving offspring)

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direct fitness

Back 11

how many surviving offspring you can produce

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indirect fitness

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helping genes get passed on by close relatives

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inclusive fitness

Back 13

direct and indirect

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Acclamation

Back 14

change in phenotype that cannot be passed on

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Adaption

Back 15

change in genotype that can be passed on

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Directional Selection

Back 16

selection one extreme over the other; shift in the mean

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Stabilizing Selection

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moving towards the mean

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Disruptive Selection

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when there’s a change in the environment that causes selection

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"Rules" of natural selection

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1. natural selection acts on individuals but its consequences are on populations
2. natural selections acts on phenotypes but evolution consists of changes in gene (allele) frequency
3. natural selection is backward- it doesn’t look forward (evolution is not progressive)
4. natural selection is directed but is not purposeful
5. natural selection acts on individuals, not groups
-individuals acts in their own best interest, not for the good of the species
6. natural selection does not achieve the optimal phenotype for all traits simultaneously
linkage, pleiotrophy

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Sexual Selection

Back 20

how much each sex invests in their offspring; traits that help attract a mate will be passed on

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sexual dimorphism

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any trait that differs between males and females
size: terictori- males are bigger to win fights

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sexual asymmetry

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“sperm is cheap, eggs are expensive”
women have an easier time finding mates

Front 23

parental investment

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sexes differ in their investment to their offspring
cruel bind: last parent there has to take care of it

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Intrasexual Selection

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male-male competition

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Intersexual Selection

Back 25

females have choice of male
-choosy females get direct and indirect benefits
-females can choose for: resources, good parenting, “safe” sex, good genes, arbitrary characters
-direct benefit- good parenting, nuptial gifts
-safe sex hypothesis: females prefer males with lower parasite/pathogen loads, reduced change of infection (direct benefit)
-good genes hypothesis (indirect benefits): females prefer males with “good” genetic qualities
--females prefer traits that are correlated with male genetic quality
--quality is heritable

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Eusociality

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-advanced form of social organization
-overlapping generations
cooperative care of offspring
-division of reproductive labor with a caste of sterile individuals

Front 27

How can altruism evolve?

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-eusociality represents the pinnacle of altruism
-altruism occurs when an individual acts to help another to the detriment of itself
-help and harm are measured in terms of reproductive success
-social insect workers are sterile and have sacrificed all their reproductive success

Front 28

Hamilton's Resolutions (altruism)

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-genes are the vehicles of evolution, not individuals (Dawkins)
-traits that serve to pass on the most copies of the gene that codes for them will be selected for
-identical copies of genes are present in you and your close relatives
-therefore, altruism will evolve if that altruistic trait helps the gene in the altruist’s relatives more than it hurts the gene in the altruist

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Hamilton's Solution

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inclusive fitness -- direct fitness, indirect fitness

Front 30

What favors the evolutions of eusociality?

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-cost to helper < relatedness * benefit to receiver
-low cost favors evolution of eusociality
-high relatedness favors eusociality
-high benefit favors eusociality

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Reciprocal Altruism

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-cooperation may be favored even when there is a short term cost, if reciprocal helping relationships exist
-multiple opportunities for mutual helping
-ability to recognize individuals and remember their behavior
-withholding of cooperation to non-reciprocators

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Fertility

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number of children you have

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Fecundity

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number of potential offspring

Front 34

haplodiploid

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-sex is determined by whether the egg is fertilized or not (in hymenoptera)
-this makes sisters highly related - 75% (50% in humans)
-males 1 N
-females 2N
-males come from unfertilized eggs, females from fertilized
-in haplodiploid organisms, sisters raising sisters profit (in genetic terms) more than if they raised their own daughters


-female relations: .5
-male relations: 1
-female back to male: .5

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diplodiploid (and relatedness)

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-all relations are .5
calculating r:
-pedigree can used to calculate r that include both the actor and recipient and that shows all possible direct routes of connection between the two
-parents contribute half their genes to their offspring
-connect actor (performs behavior) to recipient by pathways of descent
-each arrow represents a “step” or a single generation of gene transmission
-probability of gene transmission at each step = 1/2
-multiple independent transmission events
-sum all possible pathways

-half-siblings (1/2 * 1/2) = 1/4
-cousins (1/2 * 1/2 * 1/2) = 18

Front 36

Point Mutations

Back 36

-change the amino acid
-substitutions at position 3 do not change amino acid (silent)
-positions at 1 & 2 normally do

Front 37

Mutations

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-copying errors
-mutations by whatever origin may or may not have an effect on phenotype
-mutations are subject to natural selection only when they are expressed in the phenotype
-mutations are usually deleterious when in coding regions

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Quantitative Traits

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continuous variation, many genes

Front 39

Qualitative Traits

Back 39

discrete with simple genotype-phenotype relationship

Front 40

Population Genetics

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frequencies produced in entire population, including consideration of mating system, natural selection, mutation, and random chance

Front 41

Allele

Back 41

variants of the gene

Front 42

Allele Frequency

Back 42

frequency of allele in the population

Front 43

Genotype

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individuals have a genotype, individual genes

Front 44

Phenotype

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-depends on its genotype, the developmental history, the use and disuse of the trait
-always have a genetic component and an environmental component

Front 45

Gene Pool

Back 45

the alleles in a population

Front 46

Chromosome Evolution

Back 46

genetic variation due to structural changes in genomes
-deletion, insertion, inversion, copy-number variant, segmental duplication

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Population

Back 47

temporarily and geographically synchronized

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Hemizygous

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(1) Characterized by having one or more genes without allelic counterparts.
(2) Pertaining to a diploid cell with only one copy of a gene instead of the usual two copies.

male - XY

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Prophase

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really important meiosis stage for crossing over and variation

Front 50

Transposable Elements

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structural changes in the genome
-little pieces of DNA that selfishly replicate themselves and insert themselves into the chain

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Cladogenesis

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when species diverge apart

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Anagenesis

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changes within a species that occur over evolutionary history

Front 53

Biological Species Concept

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a set of actually or potentially interbreeding populations
-only applies to species that are sexual, extant (contemporary- not extinct), sympatric (same regions)

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Allopatric Speciation

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spatially separated, evolve in different environmental conditions
-founder effect: its founded by one or few individuals

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Peripatric Speciation

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evolve side by side, in contact with each other
-usually happens on places like mountains with quick, extreme environmental conditions
-white sand habit is an example

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Sympatric Speciation

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evolve in the same spot

Front 57

Allopolyploids

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different parental species

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Autopolyploids

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same parental species

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Homoploid (Hybrid) Speciation

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species that are maintained by two different species mating

Front 60

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

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prezygotic barriers (before the egg is even formed)
-spatial isolations
-temporal isolation
-mechanical isolation
-gametic isolation
-behavioral isolation
-biogeography - closest relative on mainland - spatially isolated

postzygotic barriers
-hybrid zygote abnormality
-hybrid infertility
-low hybrid viability

Front 61

Orthologs

Back 61

copies of the same gene in different species descended from their common ancestor

Front 62

Paralogs

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copies of the same gene in the same genome due to a gene duplication event

Front 63

Xenologs

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horizontal transfer of genetic material between two distantly-related speci

Front 64

Analogs

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different genes in separate species that have converged to have the same function via separate evolutionary paths

Front 65

Molecular Clock

Back 65

-rate of evolution depending solely on mutation
-if most variation is neutral (silent), differences among DNA sequences of species could be used to measure time
-assumptions:
--nucleotide changes are constant
--error rate of DNA replication can be calibrated

Front 66

Phylogeny

Back 66

patterns at and above the level of species
-population level: anagenesis
-species level: cladogenesis


-score characters of animals to see if and how they are similar
-the assumption is that all characteristics, you should favor the hypothesis that explains common descent with least number of changes
-minimize number of changes

Front 67

Synapomorphies

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shared between species in a group; shared and derived characteristics

Front 68

Pleisiomorphies

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something everything of that species has; characteristic that characterizes that group

Front 69

Monophyletic Groups

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a group which contains a common ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor(reptiles + birds)

Front 70

Paraphyletic Groups

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cut off a group from monophyletic