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99 Cards in this Set
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- Back
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Urochordata Tunicates |
■ The 4 characteristics of chordates are present in its larval stage (which may only last a few minutes) ■ The larval form will swim until it finds a suitable substrate which it settles on It goes thuough metamorphosis, reabsorbing its tail and notochord while its nerve cord degenerates The adults still maintains the pharyngeal slits for filter feeding The adults are commonly called sea squirts |
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Cephalochordata Lancelets |
In the larval form these animals develop all 4 characteristics of chordates When it goes through metamorphosis into the adult form, these characteristics are retained (it doesn' t change all that much) The adult will bury into the bottom of the ocean and filter feed with cilia like tentacles |
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Craniates |
are Chordates with a head The head consists of a brain, eyes and other sensory organs, and a skull These are different form other chordates because they have two clusters of Hox genes (the lancelets and tunicates have one cluster) |
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The neural crest |
(which craniates have) is a collection of cells at the closing margin of the neural tube in the embryo These cells scatter throughout the body giving rise to teeth, some bones, the dermis of the face, different types of neurons, and Sensory capsules in the eyes |
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Lampreys |
These are the oldest living lineage of vertebrates Most are parasitic, but they have no jaw Cartilage skeleton, with a layer of cartilage around the notochord with projections sticking out like vertebrae Larvae lives in feshwater, then migrate to the ocean |
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Hagfish |
the least derived craniate lineage They do not have vertebrae or jaws(not vertebrates) |
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Chondrichthyans |
Sharks and rays are the biggest and most successful vertebrate predators in the ocean Their skeleton is composed of cartilage with calcium deposits They do have traces of bone can be found in their scales and at the base of the teeth. Some also have a thin layer of bone on their vertebrae |
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Shark buoyancy |
It gains buoyancy by having large quantities of Oil in its liver, but the animal is still very heavy causing it to sink when it stops swimming |
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Sharks have three different methods of birthing |
●oviparous-lay eggs outside the mohers body ●ovoviviparous-eggs are retained in the oviduct, embryos arc nourished by an egg yolk, young are born after hatching ●viviparous-young develop within the uterus and obtain nutrients from the mother through a placenta |
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Osteichthyes |
Bony fish-they have a endoskeleton of calcium phosphate These are the most abundant vertebrates They control their buoyancy in the water with a swim bladder, which they can fill with air to float up or empty to sink down |
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There are two groups of bony fish |
Ray-Finned..... Most ot the fish we know The fins are supported by long flexible rays
Lobe-Finned Rod-shaped bones surrounded by a thick layer of muscle in their pectoral and pelvic fins Two groups survive today Coelacanths (1938 found in Indian Ocean, 1999 found near Indonesia) Lungfishes (lives in stagnant freshwater swamps and ponds in Southern Hemisphere) |
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Amphibian decline |
is occurring at an alarmin grate ●Habitat loss ●Acid Rain ●fungal pathogens, specifically chytrid fungus ●Pesticides and herbicides ●Invasive species ●Climate change ●Pollution |
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Amniotes |
Named for the amniotic egg with specialized membranes to protect the embryo Groups Include: reptiles, birds, and mammals |
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Reptiles |
have adopted several characteristics that enabled them to colonize and disperse over land, even in the most inhospitable environments ●Scales-create a water proof barrier which prevents desiccation ●They rely solely (for the most part) on lungs for respiration ●Eggs with a shell which prevents desiccadon ●International fertilization |
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Tuatara |
Only occurs on islands off the coast of New Zealand Rats that came with humans during exploration devastated the populations These lizard-like animals can live over 100 years Differs from lizards because of skeletal structure. |
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Birds (Aves) |
have undergone several modifications to enable Flight Save on weight -No urinary bladder -Females have one ovary -Gonads are small until breeding season -Toothless -Hollow bones (however, its skeleton is about the same weight as an equal size mammal) -Wings and Feathers ■are endotherms They use their metabolism to maintain body heat ■They have the best eyesight of all vertebrates ■There are several species are flightless Emu, kiwi, rhea, ostrich, penguins |
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Monotremes |
Platypus and Echidnas (spiny antcaters) Found only in Australia and New Guinea They are characterized as the only mammals that lay eggs They have hair, produce milk, but lack nipples Milk is produced by glands in the belly and clings to the fur |
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Marsupials |
are born very early in development ■ It completes its embryonic develop while nursing in a pouch called a marsupium ■These include opossums, kangaroos, koalas, bandicoots, and others ■They are only found in Australia and North and South America |
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Eutherians |
●Placental mammals ●They have a longer period of pregnancy than marsupials ●Embryonic development is completed within the uterus |
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Primates |
They differ from other mammals ●Hand and feet for grasping ●Flat nails instead of narrow claws ●Skin ridges ●Larger brains ●Short jaws. |
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Monkeys and apes |
are the only primates to have an opposable thumb They can touch the ventral surface of all four fingers using their thumb This can be used for gripping power and in humans the bone structure has allowed precise control ■ The group hominoids consists of Mates called apes (gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans) |
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Humans Homo sapiens |
differ from other hominoids by ●Standing and walking upright ●Larger brains capable of language, symbolic thought and use of complex tools ●Reduced jaw bones and jaw muscles ●Shorter digestive tract ■Despite these differences, their genome is 99% identical to chimpanzees |
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Phylum Porifera
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Sponges marine and freshwater
Suspension feeders (filter feeder) Food particles pass through body. Are hermaphrodite produce both sperm and eggs |
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Choanocyte (collar cells)
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Line the inside of the spongocoel (central cavity of the sponge)
Creates current to draw in water. Food particles are ingested by phagocytosis. |
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Amoebacyte
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Another specialized cell of the sponge which engulfs food particles to bring nutrients to other cells.
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Spicules
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The skeleton of the sponge.
Calcium carbonate Silica (glass) Spongin (protein) |
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Cribrostatin
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Antibiotic produced by sponges
Can kill penicillin resistant streptococcus. |
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Cnidocytes
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Specialized cells of Cnidaria function in both defense and capture of pray.
Some have nematocysts. Which are stinging capsules |
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Platyhelmithes
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Flatworms
Bilateral symmetry Triploblastic development. Organ level of organization. Has gastrovascular cavity |
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Blood fluke
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Spend part of life cycle in snails and part in humans. They can live up to 40 years in a human host by releasing molecules that influence the immune system to tolerate them.
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Rotifera
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Are about 50 microns to 2mm in size
Are pseudocoelomate and have a digestive tube with 2 openings (alimentary canal). |
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Nemertea
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Proboscis or ribbon worms
Acoelomate but contain small fluid filled sacs These are used hydraulically operating system which enables these worms to shoot out a proboscis which deliver toxin to pray Has alimentary canal 2 openings and a closed circulatory system unlike flatworms No heart Blood is pumped through vessels due to muscle contractions in vessel wall. |
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Molluscs
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Has a foot for locomotion
Visceral mass which contains organs Mantle folds of tissue over the visceral mass that secretes a shell (Polyplacephora has an 8 plated shell) Some have a mantle cavity that forms a water filled chamber containing the gills anus and excrete pores Some have a radula that is used to scrape food. |
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Polychoeta
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Most are marine worms they contain parapoda that functions in locomotion.
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Hirudinae
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Leaches ussually in fresh water
Many are predators but some are parasitic using blade like jaws to slit the skin and feed on blood. Produce anesthetic and an anticoagulant Hirudin to prevent clotting. Can be used in treatment of people. |
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Nematodes
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These Round worms are nonsegmented and Pseudocoelomates and are found everywhere marine freshwater terrestrial living on plants and living in the body fluids of animals.
Many are important as decomposers but others are parasitic to animals and plants Thrichinella spirals causes trichinosis. |
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Advantages and disadvantages of exoskeleton.
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+Protection
+Atachment point for muscles +Prevents desiccation retain moisture +Allows Arthropods to colonize land as it can support itself out of a buoyant environment. –Can't grow without shedding exoskeleton energy expensive –when freshly molted are vulnerable |
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Chelicerforms
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Named after claw like feeding appendage chelicerae
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Myriapoda
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Centipedes
Are carnivorous with using poison on prey and have one pair of legs per segment.(chilapoda) millipedes eat decaying plant matter And have 2 pair of legs per segment (Diplopoda) |
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Echinoderms
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They have water vascular system that branches into tube feet. Involved in locomotion feeding and gas exchange. Egg and sperm are released into the water for fertilization.
Larvae has lateral symmetry and adults have radial symmetry. |
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Benefits of a complex body plan
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Outer covering for protection.
Large muscles can enable rapid and precise movement Digestive organs can break food down gradually controlling release of stored energy The organism can control the solute composition when environment changes. Maintain homeostasis. |
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Bioenergetics
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The flow of energy through an animal
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Way to measure metabolic rate.
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Measure rate of heat loss
Measuring oxygen consumption or CO2 released Measure rate of food consumption and the energy content of the food. Food can only be done over a long period of time |
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Basal metabolic rate BMR
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The metabolic rate of a non growing endotherms with empty stomach and no stress.
Energy to simply maintain life. |
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Standard metobolic rate SMR
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The minimum metobolic rate of an ectotherm at a specific temp, resting, fasting, and no stress.
Energy to maintain life if an ectotherm. |
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Energy budget
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Most food is used for production of atp and very little is used for growth and reproduction. These are energy intensive but account for a small percentage of the life cycle.
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Regulators
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Animals that use internal control to moderate internal changes when external fluctuation is occurring.(regulation of temp solute concentration etc.)
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Conformers
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Animals that allow the internal environment to vary with external changes (conforms to changes of temp and solute concentrations)
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Thermoregulation
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Maintaining internal temperature within a tolerable range.
Cell membrane And biochemical and physiological processes are sensitive to temp fluctuation. Ectotherms can tolerate wider internal fluctuation but narrower external fluctuations than endotherms. |
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Heat exchange processes
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1 conduction– direct heat transfer
2 convection– transfer of heat by MOVING air or liquid (e.g. wind or current) 3 radiation– emission of electromagnetic wave. Energy emitted by all objects (e.g. the sun) 4 evaporation– removal of heat from surface of a liquid. Liquid into a gas pulling off heat. |
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Insulation in endotherms
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●Adipose tissue in hypodermis
●Fur or hair if there is sufficient air trapped in the layers ●Blubber in marine mammals an even thicker layer of fat. Due to heat transfer being 100 times quicker in water |
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Vasodilation
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Increase the diameter of blood vessels in response to overhearing
More blood to the surface and heat is radiated off faster. |
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Vasoconstriction
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Decrease in diameter of blood vessels to prevent excess heat loss when temperatures fall. Keeps core warm and sacrifice extremities.
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Counter current heat exchanger
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Reduce heat loss by allowing the heat from warm blood to radiate into the blood returning to the core and warms this cooler blood and limits excess cooling of core.
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Types of evaporative cooling
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●Sweating
●Water baths ●spreading saliva e.g. kangaroos. ●Increase in mucus production in amphibians. ●Panting. Some animals regulate heat through behavioral thermoregulation. |
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Torpor
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When temp extremes or food sources are low. This is a 24hr or less physiological state of low activity and decrease metabolism.
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Hibernation
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Long term torpor
In response to a cold environment. The termoregulation needs are more with less food available. |
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Estivation
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Torpor in response to a hot environment.
Limited water food and extreme heat. |
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Daily torpor
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Torpor carried out by small mammals and bird due to high metabolism and lowering metabolism significantly is needed to maintain life.
Occurs in Shrewsbury and bats during day (nocturnal feeding) And chickadees and humming birds at night (diurnal feeding during day) |
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Most abundant protein in animals
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Collagen
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Tight junction
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Closely pressed membranes are bound with proteins which prevent extracellular fluid from leaking out.
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Desmosomes
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Fasten adjacent cells together into sheets this is anchored into the cytoplasm by keratin proteins.
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Gap junctions
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Cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells allowing communication between cells
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Tissue unique to animals
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Nervous tissue
Muscle tissue |
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Zygote
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A fertilized egg
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Cleavage (mitosis)
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Zygote divides without cell growth between divisions this leads to a morula (a solid mass of cells~8 cells)
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Gastulation
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The creating layers of embryonic tissue. The cell is now a gastula (germ layer form)
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Hox gene
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Animals share a family of genes known as the called _____These genes are important for the development of animal embryos and controlt hundreds of other genes (controlling cell division, differentiation, and morphological features ot animals) huge amounts of diversity.
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Neoproterozoic era
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1 billion to 545 million years ago
First animal fossil is 575 million years old (ediacaran fauna named after the place in Australia where they were found) New early animals was time of increase in animal diversity. Time of build up of oxygen and the first multicellular eukaryotic life forms. |
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Paleozoic era
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542–251 million years ago
Diversity of animals accelerated during this time and was called the Cambrian explosion. |
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Cambrian explosion
Hypotheses |
●Predator prey relationship drove diversity through natural selection(evolutionary arms race)
●more oxygen in the atmosphere lead to animals with higher metabolic rated and larger body sizes ●the Hox gene complex evolved during this time leading to variations in morphology |
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Mesozoic era
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251 to 65.5 million years ago
●Small mammals appeared ●Large coral reefs formed ●Large dinosaurs emerged (dominant species) |
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Cenozoic era
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65.5 million years ago to today
■Mass extinction of terrestrial and marine animals ■Newly opened niches gave rose to larger mammals ■Drastic climate changes created shifts in animal's lineages which allowed them to occupy newly created habitats |
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Protostome
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Triploblast Develop by
spiral cleavage cells don't line up The smaller cells lie in grooves between larger cells Cells are going through determinate cleacage (remove one and it won't fully develop into the organism) Fate of blastopore 1st mouth then anus |
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Deuterostome
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3 germ layers body cavity Develop by radial cleavageThe cells are alignedCells have indeterminate cleavage
;each of these cells produced by early cleavage retains the ability to develop into a complete embryo e.g. identical twins Fate of blastopore 1st anus than mouth. |
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Macroevolution
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Evolutionary Change over large time
1 Emergence of terrestrial vertebrates 2 Impact of mass extinctions. 3 The origin of flight in birds. |
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Conditions on early life to make life possible.
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1 Abiotic (without life) synthesis of small organic molecules.
2 joining of small molecules into macromolecules 3 packaging of molecules into protocells 4 origin of self replicating molecules |
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Synthesis of small organic molecules
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Stanley miller and Harold Urey showed that abiotic synthesis was possible as the early earth's atmosphere contained water vapor and chemical released by volcanic eruptions (nitrogen nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide.)
And we're able to create organic molecules(amino acids) in a lab replicating the early earth environment. Amino acids were also found on meteorites. |
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Abiotic synthesis of macromolecules
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Need heat to polymerize monomers
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Protocells
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Phospholipids forming into a bilayer in agitated water (presence of clay speeds this)
This can form around genetic material and this can asexually reproduce vesicles Splinting into two |
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Self replication of RNA
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RNA can act as a Ribozyme and can catalyze many different reactions
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Fossil record biased
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Species that
●existed for a long time ●Were widespread ●Had hard parts |
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Tiktaalik
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Called a missing link shows transition from aquatic vertebrate to terrestrial vertebrate with the addition of an articulating wrist.
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Stromatolites
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Rocks formed by accumulation of sedimentary layers of bacteria mats
Oldest found fossils. |
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Oxygen revolution
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Most O2 is of bilogical origin produced by cyanobacteria and the proof of this is that the iron in rock began to rust when cyanobacteria appeared. This lead to the extinction of prokaryotes that were obligate anerobes.
Later accumulation of O2 was due to the evolution of eukaryotic cells with chloroplasts. |
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First eukaryotic organisms
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These cells have a nuclear envelope mitochondria endoplasmic reticulum and a cytoskeleton.
Endosymbiotiont theory proposes that mitochondria and chloroplast were small prokaryotic cells that live within a larger host cell. They became interdependent and became one organism. Serial endosymbiosis supposes that mitochondria evolved before chloroplasts. |
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Evidence of endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts
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1 Inner membrane similar to plasmamembrane of prokaryotic cells
2 division is similar in these organelles to prokaryotic organism Binary fision. 3 these organelles transcribe and translate their own DNA 4 their ribosomes are more simular to prokaryotic than eukaryotic ribosomes. |
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Consequences of continental drift
Super continent |
Pangea last super continent
1 deepening of ocean basin 2 reduction in shall water habitat 3 colder drier inland climate |
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Permian extinction
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This caused extinction of 96 percent of aquatic animal species in less than 5 million years due to volcanism in what is now Siberia heated the global temperature with the increase CO2
This reduces current in ocean water and the deep water was anoxic and sea life died. |
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Creataceous mass extinction
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Wiped out the dinosaurs due to an asteroid.
Proof thick band of iridium on every continent. |
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Adaptive radiation
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Evolution of diversely adapted species from a common ancestor
1 After mass extinction 2 evolution of novel characteristics 3 colonization of new regions |
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Worldwide adaptive radiation
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Mammal expansion after dinosaur extinction
Photosynthetic prokaryotes large predators in Cambrian period. Land plants, insects, Tetrapods. This occurs when organisms colonize new environments with little competition the Hawaiian island being an example. |
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Evolutionary novelties
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Most novel biological structures evolve in many stages from previously existing structures.
Complex eyes evolved from simple photosensitive cells independently over time. |
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Exaptations
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structures evolved in one context but become co–opted for different function(e.g. feathers swim bladder)
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Consequences of continental drift
Effects on living organism |
1 Continents climate changes as it moves north or south
2 separation of landmasses can lead to allopatric speciation. New species developing separately. |
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Archaean eon
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Appearance of archaea
Simple life. |
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Proterozoic eons
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New simple animals
The end of Neoproterozoic era |
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Phanerozoic Eon
3 Eras |
Paleozoic(Cambia explosion)
Mesozoic(dinosaurs dominant species) Cenozoic (mammals are dominant) This is current era |
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Proof of endosymbiosis of mitochondria and plastids
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●Inner membrane similar to plasma membrane of prokaryotes
●Division is these organelles simular to prokaryotes ●These transcribe and translate their own DNA ●Their ribosomes are more simular to prokaryotic than eukaryotic ribosomes |
