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268 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Cancer
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Disease that occurs when a malignant neoplasm physically and metobollically disrupts body tissues
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Mitosis
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Nuclear division mechanism that maintains the chromosome number. Basis of Body growth, tissue repair and replacement in multi-celled eukaryotes; also asexual reproduction in some plants, animals, fungi, and protists
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Meiosis
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Nuclear division process that halves the chromosome number. Basis of sexual reproduction
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Inheritance
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transmission of DNA from parents to offspring
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DNA replication
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process by which cell duplicates its DNA before it divides
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Forensic genetics/genotyping
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The particular alleles get carried by an individual
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clone
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a genetically identical copy; can refer to DNA, a cell, or an organism
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cloning vector
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a DNA molecule that can accept foreign DNA, can be transferred to a host cell and replicated in it
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stem cells
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a cell that can divide to form more stem cells or differentiate to becoe a specialized cell type
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gene therapy
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the transfer of a normal or modified gene into an individual with the goal of treating a genetic defect or disorder
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genetic engineering
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process by which deliberate changes are introduced into an individual's genome
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The chromosome number
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is an identifiable feature of a species
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What are the base-pairing rules for DNA?
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A = T
G = C |
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One species' DNA differs from others in its
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base sequence
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When DNA replication begins:
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the two DNA strands unwind from eachother
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DNA replication requires
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DNA polymerase, template DNA, and free nucleotides
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Replication of a DNA molecule results in
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two double strands of DNA
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DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to
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single-stranded DNA
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Show the complementary strand of DNA that forms on this template DNA fragment during replication;
GGTTTCTTCAAGAGA |
CCAAAGAAGTTCTCT
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________- is an example of reproductive cloning
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somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) and artificial embryo splitting
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nucleotide
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nitrogen-containing base, sugar, phosphate groups
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The chromosome number
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is an identifiable feature of a species
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What are the base-pairing rules for DNA?
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A = T
G = C |
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One species' DNA differs from others in its
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base sequence
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When DNA replication begins:
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the two DNA strands unwind from eachother
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DNA replication requires
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DNA polymerase, template DNA, and free nucleotides
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Replication of a DNA molecule results in
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two double strands of DNA
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DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to
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single-stranded DNA
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Show the complementary strand of DNA that forms on this template DNA fragment during replication;
GGTTTCTTCAAGAGA |
CCAAAGAAGTTCTCT
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________- is an example of reproductive cloning
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somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) and artificial embryo splitting
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nucleotide
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nitrogen-containing base, sugar, phosphate groups
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clone
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copy of an organism
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DNA ligase
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fills in gaps, seals breaks in a DNA strand
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DNA polymerase
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adds nucleotides to a growing DNA strand
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Eukaryote
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organism whose cells characteristically have a nucleus; a protist, plant, animal, or fungus
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protist
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a eukaryote that is not a plant, fungus, or animal
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eukaryotic chromosome
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a molecule of DNA together with associated proteins
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Diploid
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having two of each type of of chromosome characteristics of the species
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Chromosome number
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the sum of all chromosomes in cells of a given type
human: 23 pairs of chromosomes |
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Autosomes
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any chromosome other than a sex chromosome
have the same length, shape, and centromere location, and they carry the same genes |
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centromere
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constricted region in a eukaryotic chromosome where sister chromatids are attached
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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
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Nucleic that carries hereditary information about traits; consists of two nucleotide chains twisted in a double helix.
information is encoded by its base sequence is the basis of an organism'f form and function five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), three phosphate groups, on of four nitrogen-containing bases after which the nucleotide is named: adenine, theymine, guanine, or cytosine |
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DNA polymerase
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DNA replication enzyme. Assembles a new strand of DNA based on the sequence of a DNA template
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A chromosome contains many genes that are transcribed into different
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RNAs
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A binding site for RNA polymerase is called a
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promoter
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Energy that drives transcription is provided mainly by
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ATP, GTP, and RNA nucleotides
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An RNA molecule is typically
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single-stranded
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a DNA molecule is typically
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double-stranded
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RNAs form by
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transcription
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proteins form by
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translation
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Up to how many amino acids can be encoded by a gene that consists of 45 nucleotides?
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15
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Most codons specify an
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amino acid
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Anticodons pair with
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mRNA codons
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Energy that drives translation is provided mainly by
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GTP
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Where does transcription take place in a eukaryotic cell?
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nucleus
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Where does translation take place in a eukaryotic cell?
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ribosome and cytoplasm
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Homeotic gene products
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control the formation of specific body parts
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what all do master genes include?
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homeotic genes, SRY gene, PAX 6
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A cell with a Barr body is:
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from a female mammal
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genetic message
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read as base triplets
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sequence
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linear order of bases
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polysome
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occurs only in groups
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eyeless
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homeotic
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genetic code
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set of 64 codons
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differentiation
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cells become specialized
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transposable element
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gets around
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transcription
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(DNA to RNA)
process by which an RNA is assembled from nucleotides using the base sequence of a gene as a template |
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translation
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(mRNA to protein)
process by which a polypeptide chain is assembled from amino acids in the order specified by an mRNA requires the participation of tRNA (transfer RNA) and rRNA (ribosomal RNA) |
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DNA --Transcription --> mRNA --translation --> protein
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.
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polypeptide
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chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
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peptide bonds
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a bond between the amnio group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another
joins amino acids in proteins |
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RNA polymerase
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enzyme that carries out transcription
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DNA polymerase:
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assembles complementary strand of DNA on each of the parent strands during DNA replication
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mutation
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permanent change in DNA sequence. primary source of new alleles
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pedigree
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chart showing the pattern of inheritance of a train in a family
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Sickle-cell anemia
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caused by a base-pair substitution in the hemoglobin beta chain gene
= one example of mutation |
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homeotic gene
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type of master gene; its expression controls formation of specific body parts during development
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promoter
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in DNA, a sequence to which RNA polymerase binds
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transcription factor
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protein that influences transcription by binding to DNA
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ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
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RNA nucleotide that consists of an adenine base, five-carbon ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.
Main energy carrier between reaction sites in cells |
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DNA replication
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cell copies its chromosomes before it divides
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amino acids
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small organic compound with a carboxyl group, an amine group, and a characteristic side group. subunit of proteins.
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anticodon
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set of three nucleotides in tRNA; base-pairs with mRNA codon
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master genes
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gene encoding a product that affects the expression of many other genes
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SRY gene
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the master gene for male sex determination
the expression in XY embryos triggers the formation of testes |
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PAX 6
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similar to eyeless
PAX 6 mutations cause eye disorders such as an aniridia, in which a person's irises are underdeveloped or missing works across different species |
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Barr body
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condensed X chromosomes -- Murray Barr
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How many chromatids does a duplicated chromosome have?
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2
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mitosis and cytoplasmic division function in
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asexual reproduction of single-celled ukaryotes
growth and tissue repair in multicelled species |
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_____ maintains the chromosome number
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mitosis
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__________ halves the chromosome number
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meiosis
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Generally, a pair of homologous chromosomes:
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carry the same genes
interact at meiosis are the same length, shape |
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A cell with two of each type of chromosome has a ______ chromosome number
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diploid
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Interphase is the part of the cell cycle when:
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a cell grows and duplicates its DNA
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After mitosis, the chromosome number of the two new cells is _________ the parent cell's
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the same as
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only _______ is not a stage of mitosis
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interphase
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meiosis and cytoplasmic division function in _______
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sexual reproduction
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Anaphase:
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The sister chromatids have just been pulled apart
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Sexual reproduction always requires
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fertilization
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What is the name for alternative forms of the same gene?
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alleles
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prophase
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chromosomes start to condense
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telophase
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new nuclei form
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metaphase 1
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homologous chromosomes aligned at the spindle equator
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metaphase 2
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unduplicated chromosomes aligned at the spindle equator
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interphase
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maybe none between meiosis 1 and 2
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anaphase 2
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sister chromatids move apart
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prophase 1
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homologues swap segments
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anaphase 1
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homologous chromosomes move apart
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mitosis: early prophase
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mitosis begins, in the nucleus, the DNA begins to appear grainy as it organizes and condenses. the centrosome is duplicated
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mitosis: prophase
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the chromosomes become visible as distinct structures as they condense further
microtubles assemble and move one of the two centrosomes to the opposite side of the nucleus, and the nuclear envelope breaks up |
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mitosis: transition to metaphase
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the nuclear envelope is gone, and the chromosomes are at their most condensed
spindle microtubles assemble and attach sister chromatids to opposite spindle poles |
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metaphase
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all of the chromosomes are aligned midway between the spindle poles. microtubles attach each chromatid to one of the spindle poles, and its sister to the opposite pole
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mitosis: anaphase
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motor proteins moving along spindle microtubles drag the chromatids toward the spindle poles and the sister chromatids separate. Each sister chromatid is now a separate chromosome.
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mitosis: telophase
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the chromosome reach the spindle poles and decondense. a nuclear envelope forms around each cluster.
mitosis is over |
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mitosis:
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nuclear division mechanism that maintains the chromosome number.
Basis of body growth, tissue repair and replacement in multicelled eukaryotes asexual reproduction in somme plants, animals, fungi, and protists |
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prophase --> metaphase --> anaphase --> telophase
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cytoplasmic division
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cytoplasm usually divides after mitosis
differs among eukaryotes |
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cytoplasmic division: animal cells
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contractile ring pinches cytoplasm in two
animal cells divide simply by pinching in two: cell cortex (mesh of cytoskeletal elements just under the plasma membrane) includes a brand of actin and myosin filaments that wraps around the cell's midsection |
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cytoplasmic division: plant cells
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a cell plate that forms midway between the spindle poles partitions the cytoplasm when it reaches and connects to the parent cell wall
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cytoplasmic division of an animal cell
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after mitosis is completed, the spindle begins to disassemble --> at the midpoint of the former spindle, a ring of actin and myosin filaments attached to the plasma contracts --> the ring contracts until it pinches the cell in two
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cytoplasmic division of a plant cell
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the plane of division was established before mitosis began. vesicles cluster here when mitosis ends --> as the vesicles fuse with eachother they form a cell plate along the plane of division --> the cell plate expands outward along the plane of division. When it reaches the plasma membrane it attaches to the membrane and partitions the cytoplasm
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contractile ring
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band of filaments, contracts when its component proteins are energized by ATP
when it contracts - it shrinks, and it drags the plasma membrane as it does |
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cleavage furrow
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visible indentation on the outside of the cell between the former spindle poles
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meiosis
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nuclear division process that halves the chromosome number
basis of sexual reproduction prophase 1 --> metaphase 1 -> anaphase 1--> telophase 1 --> prophase 2 --> metaphase 2-> anaphase 2 --> telophase 2 |
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homologous
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refers to the two members of a pair of chromosomes with the same length, shape, and genes
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gametes
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mature, haploid reproductive cell--egg or sperm
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sporophytes
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diploid, spore-producing stage of a plant life cycle
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zygote
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cell formed by fusion of gametes
first cell of a new individual |
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haploid
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having one of each type of chromosome characteristic of the species
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diploid
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having two of each type of chromosome characteristic of a species
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interphase
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in a eukaryotic cell cycle, the interval between mitotic divisions when a cell grows, roughly doubles the number of its cytoplasmic components, and replicates its DNA
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sister chromatid
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one of two attached members of a duplicated eukaryotic chromosome
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A herterozygote has a _____ for a trait being studied
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pair of nonidentical alleles
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The observable traits of an organism constitute its
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phenotype
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The offspring of the cross AA x aa are
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all Aa
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Assuming alleles have a clear dominance relationship, a dihypbrid cross leads to a phenotypic ratio in offspring that is close to
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9:3:3:1
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The probability of a crossover occurring between two genes on the same chromosome is:
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increased if they are far apart
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If one parent is heterozygous for a dominant autosomal allele and the other parent does not carry the allele, a child of theirs has a ____ of being heterozygous
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no chance; it will die
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A bell curve indicates _________ in a trait
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crossing over
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nondisjunction at meiosis can result in:
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continuous variation
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color blindness is a case of _____ inheritance
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X-linked recessive
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Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) is easily diagnosed by:
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karyotyping
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T/F: a son can inherit an X-linked recessive allele from his father
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false
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T/F: body cells may inherit three or more of each type of chromosome characteristic of the species, a condition called polyploidy
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true
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A recognized set of symptoms that characterize a specific disorder is a:
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syndrome
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dihybrid cross
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AaBb x AaBb
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monohybrid cross
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Aa x Aa
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homozygous condition
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bb
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heterozygous condition
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Aa
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polyploidy
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extra set of chromosomes
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syndrome
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symptoms that characterize a genetic disorder
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aneuploidy
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one extra chromosome
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nondisjunction during meiosis
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gametes with the wrong chromosome number
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epistasis
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one gene affects another
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Cystic Fybrosis and Typhoid Fever
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CF mutation disables the receptor function of the CFTR protein - inhibits the endocytosis of bacteria into epithelial cells
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cystic fibrosis
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most common fatal genetic disorder in U.S. - caused by a deletion in the CFTR gene
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epithelial tissue
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sheetlike animal tissue that covers outer body surfaces and lines internal tubes and cavities
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endocytosis
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process by which a cell takes in a small amount of extracellular fluid by the ballooning inward of its plasma membrane
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hybrids
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the offspring of a cross between two individuals that breed true for different forms of a trait
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allele
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forms of a gene that encode slightly different versions of the gene's product
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genotype
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the particular alleles carried by an individual
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phenotype
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an individual's observable traits
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pleiotropic
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refers to a gene whose product influences multiple traits
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genetic disorder
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a heritable condition that results in a syndrome of mild or severe medical problems
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autosomal dominant disorders
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achondroplasia: one form of dwarfism
camptodactyly: rigid, bent fingers familial hyper - cholesterolemia: high cholesterol levels in blood, eventually causing clogged arteries huntington's disease: nervous system degenerates progressively, irreversibly marfan syndrome: abnormal connective tissue polydactyly: extra fingers, toes, or both progeria: drastic premature aging neurofibromatosis: tumors of nervous system and skin |
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autosomal recessive disorders
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albinism: absence of pigmentation
hereditary methomoglobinemia: blue skin coloration cystic fibrosis: abnormal secretions leading to tissue, organ damage ellis-van creveld syndrome: dwarfism, hearing defects, polydactyly fanconi anemia: physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure galactosemia; brain, liver, eye damage phenylketunuria (PKU): mental impairment sickle-cell anemia: adverse pleiotropic effects on organs throughout body |
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autosomes
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any chromosome other than a sex chromosome
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nondisjunction
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failure of sister chromatids or hologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis or mitosis
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aneuploidy
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a condition in which cells have too many or too few copies of a chromosome
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polyploid
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cells have three or more type of chromosome
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heterozygous
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having two different alleles of a gene
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homozygous
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having identical alleles of a gene
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bell curve
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bell-shaped curve; typically results from graphing frequency versus distribution for a trait that varies continuously in a population
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continuous variation
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in a population, a range of small differences in a shared trait
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crossing over
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process in which homologous chromosomes exchange corresponding segments during prophase 1 of meiosis
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pedigree analysis
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studies can show whether genetic abnormalities and disorders are caused by a dominant or recessive allele, and whether the allele is on an autosome or a sex chromosome.
allows geneticists to determine the probability that a genetic disorder with recur in future generations of a family or population |
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syndrome
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the set of symptoms that characterize a genetic disease
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disease
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condition that arises when a pathogen interferes with an organism's normal body functions
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pedigree
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chart showing the pattern of inheritance of a trait in a family
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natural selection
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environmental resources
differences in traits competition among individuals |
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The number of species on an island depends on the size of the island and its distance from a mainland. This statement would most likely be made by ________
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a biogeographer
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The bones of a bird's wing are similar to the bones in a bat's wing. This observation is an example of....
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comparative morphology
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Evolution is
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driven by natural selction and change in a line of descent
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In the half-life of a radioisotope is 20,000 years, then a sample in which three-quarters of that radioisotope as decayed is ____ years old.
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40,000
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______ has/have influenced the fossil record
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sedimentation and compaction
tectonic plate movements |
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evidence suggests that life originated in the ______
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archean
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the cretaceous ended _______ million years ago
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65.5 million years ago
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forces of geologic change include _________
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erosion, volcanoes, tectonic plate movement, wind, asteroid impacts, and hot spots
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through ____, a body part of an ancestor is modified differently in different lines of descent
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mophological divergence
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Homologous structures among major groups of organisms may differ in _______
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size, shape, and function
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Some mutations are neutral because they do not affect ______
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the chances of survival
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by altering steps in the program by which embryos develop, a mutation in a ______ may lead to major differences in body form between related lineages
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homeotic gene
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Evolution is
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driven by natural selction and change in a line of descent
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In the half-life of a radioisotope is 20,000 years, then a sample in which three-quarters of that radioisotope as decayed is ____ years old.
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40,000
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______ has/have influenced the fossil record
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sedimentation and compaction
tectonic plate movements |
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evidence suggests that life originated in the ______
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archean
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the cretaceous ended _______ million years ago
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65.5 million years ago
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forces of geologic change include _________
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erosion, volcanoes, tectonic plate movement, wind, asteroid impacts, and hot spots
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through ____, a body part of an ancestor is modified differently in different lines of descent
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mophological divergence
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Homologous structures among major groups of organisms may differ in _______
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size, shape, and function
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Some mutations are neutral because they do not affect ______
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the chances of survival
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by altering steps in the program by which embryos develop, a mutation in a ______ may lead to major differences in body form between related lineages
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homeotic gene
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fitness
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measured by reproductive success
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fossils
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evidence of life in distant past
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natural selection
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survival of the fittest
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half-life
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characteristic of a radioisotope
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catastophism
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geologic change occurs in sudden major events
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uniformity
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geologic change occurs continuously
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analogous structures
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insect wing and bird wing
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sedimentary rock
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good for finding fossils
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homologous structures
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human arm and bird wing
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Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace's theory of how species evolve
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a population tends to grow until it begins to exhaust environmental resources -- food, shelter from predators, and so on.
competition intensifies among individuals of the population individual's with forms of traits that make them more competitive tend to produce more offspring adaptive traits (adaptations) that impart greater fitness to an individual become more common in a population over generations, compared with less competitive forms |
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natural selections
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differential survival and reproduction of individuals of a population that vary in the details of shared traits - one of the processes that drives evolution
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homologous structures
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similar parts that reflect shared ancestry among lineages
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lineage
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line of descent
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analogous structures
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similar body structures that evolved separately in different lineages
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coprolite
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a stony mass consisting of fossilized fecal matter of animals
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If ATG is the DNA sequence, what is the tRNA anticodon?
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AUG
--> 2 steps to get to tRNA anticodon: transcription (turns into messenger RNA: UAC, then transfer RNA is what combines with messenger: AUG) when asking to determine amino acids don't look at DNA sequence, but look at codon sequence: complimentary |
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The backbone of DNA consists of
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a repeating sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate pattern
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RNA contains
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uracil
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DNA contains
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thymine
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RNA
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single-stranded
ribose sugar uracil for nitrogenous base |
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DNA
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Deoxyribose sugar
thymines for nitrogenous base double-stranded |
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during DNA replication _______ is responsible for adding the new nucleotides to the new strand of DNA?
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DNA Polymerase
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What is transcription?
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the manufacture of a strand of mRNA complementary to a strand of DNA
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Where does translation occur?
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ribosome
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Where does transcription occur?
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the nucleus
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Variation in length of VNTR loci is caused by:
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frameshift mutations
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frameshifts
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either insertions or deletions where a sequence of a DNA pair are inserted or deleted
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DNA is repaired by
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splicing out the error and replacing it with the correct sequence and seal it up with DNA ligose
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Base-pair substitution/point
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type of mutation in which a single base-pair changes
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insertion
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mutation in which one or more base pairs becomes inserted into DNA
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Deletion
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mutation in which one or more base pairs are lost from DNA
segment of DNA is forgotten about |
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A true breeding plant that produced yellow seeds is crossed with a true-breeding plant that produces green seeds; all of the seeds in the offspring are yellow, why?
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yellow allele is dominant to green allele
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attached earlobes are recessive to free earlobes. if your father has attached earlobes and your mother is heterozygous for free earlobes, what is the probability that you will have attached earlobes?
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50%
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an individual who is homozygous:
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carries two copies of the same allele for a gene under two homologous chromosomes
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it is theoretically possible for a gene in any organism to function in any other organism. why?
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all organisms have the same genetic code
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which type of immune cells does HIV attack?
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helper T cells
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what is the difference between HIV and small pox?
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HIV has RNA
small pox has DNA |
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spindle
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dynamically assembled and disassembled array of microtubles that moves chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis
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microtubule
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cytoskeletal element involved in movement; hollow filament of tubulin subunits
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cancer
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disease that occurs when a malignant neoplasm physically and metabolically disrupts body tissues
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inheritance
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transmission of DNA from parents to offspring
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somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
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method of reproductive cloning in which genetic material is tranferred from an adult somatic cell into an unfertilized, enucleated egg
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karyotype
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image of an individual's complement of chromosomes arranged by sized, length, shape, and centromere location
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dominant
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refers to an allele that masks the effect of a recessive allele paired with it
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recessive
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refers to an allele with an effect that is masked by a dominant allele on the homologous chromosome
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codominant
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refers to two alleles that are both fully expressed in heterozygous individuals
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punnent square
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diagram used to predict the genetic and phenotypic outcome of a cross
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hypothesis
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testable statement that proposes an answer to a question
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Meiosis
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cell division that occurs during the formation of gametes (sex cells: egg and sperm)
these cells are haploid (23 chromosomes -- 1/2 the number of chromosomes found in a normal cell) produces 4 genetically unique daughter cells necessary for reproduction final product: males - sperm: 4 females - ovum/egg: 1 and 3 polar bodies |
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Meiosis
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necessary for sexual reproduction
produces 4 daughter cells produces gametes (sperm and egg) daughter cells are genetically unique because of shuffling of genetic material results in haploid cells (half the normal number of chromosomes) |
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somatic
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opposite of gametes, all the rest of the cells
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Mitosis
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necessary for cell replacement and growth
produces 2 daughter cells produces somatic cells (normal body cells) daughter cells are genetically identical results in diploid cells (complete set of chromosomes) |
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Major difference between meiosis and mitosis
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mitosis is the division and growth of cells
meiosis is used for sexual reproduction, produces cells that carry on genes |
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T/F: In a gamete (cell type produced in meiosis) there is only half the number of needed chromosomes
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TRUE
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During meiosis homologous chromosomes "shuffle" segments of their DNA. what is the genetic impact of this event?
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genetic variation in daughter cells
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How are asexual reproduction and mitosis different?
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asexual reproduction and mitosis are the same thing
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What is one thing a karyotype could be used for?
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determining DNA strands to see if there is any chromosomal abnormalities
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Colorblindness is a recessive trait located on the X chromosome
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males are more likely than females to be colorblind
females have two copies of the gene for color vision |
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structure of DNA
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two twisted chains of nucleotides containing the sugar deoxyribose
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DNA
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made up of nucleotides consisting of: a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose) four nitrogenous bases: Adenine bonds with Thymine (A-T) and Guanine bonds with Cytosine (G-C) double stranded |
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RNA
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made up of nucleotides consisting of: a sugar, a phosphate group, a nitrogenous base
5 carbon sugar (ribose) four nitrogenous bases: Adenine bonds with Uracil (A-U) Guanine bonds with Cytosine (G-C) single stranded |
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DNA replication
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the process of making copies of strands of DNA. Existing DNA is used as a template for the synthesis of new DNA strands. this is an important step for cell division
final product: two identical double stranded DNA molecules each made up of one old strand and one new strand |
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protein synthesis
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the two step process of making proteins from the code found in the genes in DNA. These proteins are required for most aspects of life (structure, movement, defense, regulation, storage, transport, communication)
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transcription
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making an mRNA (messenger RNA0 copy from a sequence of DNA (this happens in the nucleus)
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translation
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process by which the information on a messenger RNA molecule is used to direct the synthesis of a protein (this happens in the cytoplasm at a ribosome
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Key players in protein synthesis
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mRNA with codons, tRNA (transfer) with anticodons, ribosome, amino acids
final product: polypeptides (long chains of amino acids), proteins |
