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163 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Natural Selection
differential reproductive success - individuals whose characteristics best adapt them to their CURRENT environment are most likely to survive + reproduce
"fit" individual
well-adapted to the environment + able to pass along its genes
population
a group of individuals - same species, same time, same place
gene pool
all alleles in a population (diploid)
microevolution
when a given allele frequency changes in a given population over time
what creates new alleles?
mutations
what are the two characteristics of a non-evolving population?
1. gene pool remains constant (no change in allele frequency)
2. highly theoretical
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
sexual reproduction alone does not lead to microevolution - genetic equilibrium
directional selection
when allele frequencies, underlying a range of variation, shift in a consistent direction, in response to a change in the environment
stabilizing selection
when intermediate phenotypes are favored and extreme phenotypes at both ends of the range of variation are eliminated
disruptive selection
when intermediate phentotypes are selected against and extreme phenotypes are favored
sexual selection
when a phenotype that gives an individual an advantage at reproductive success if favored
balancing selection
when two or more alleles are maintained at a frequency of greater than 1% over the generation, which tends to favor heterozygotes
genetic drift
change in gene pool based on chance, not selection
- small populations
bottleneck effect
reduction in population size when individuals are randomly chosen
founder effect
colonization of a new location by only a few individuals by chance
gene flow
individuals or gametes are transferred between populations (immigration/emigration)
mutation
random change in an organism's DNA
- only creative force
Ernst Mayr's Biological Species Concept
a group of populations whose individuals have the potential to interbreed + produce fertile offspring
- sexual, not asexual
temporal isolation
pre-zygotic reproductive barrier
- whole organisms are not present at same time
ecological isolation
pre-zygotic reproductive barrier
- organisms are not located in same placd
behavioral isolation
pre-zygotic reproductive barrier
- no sexual attraction
mechanical isolation
pre-zygotic reproductive barrier
- unique reproductive parts
gamete mortality
pre-zygotic reproductive barrier
- copulation but no fertilization
hybrid inviability
post-zygotic reproductive barrier
- either no development of embryo or offspring that are frail + weak
hybrid sterility
post-zygotic reproductive barrier
- healthy but sterile offspring
allopatric speciation
physical/geographic barrier
divergence
allopatric speciation
1 -> 2 species
adaptive radiation
allopatric speciation
1 -> many species
sympatric speciation
without a geographical barrier
- 3n plants
systematics
study of biological diversity
phylogeny
evolutionary history (and relationships) of a group of organisms
- genealogy/tree of life
taxonomy
naming + classification of species
- Linnaeus
Domain ...
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
transformation
taking up of DNA from surrounding fluid
- prokaryote genetic variation
trasduction
phase trasfers a piece of DNA from previous host cell into new host cell
- prokaryote genetic variation
conjugation
direct transfer of replicated DNA from one cell to another
- prokaryote genetic variation
chordates
dorsal neve tube
notochord
posterior tail
pharyngial gill slits
tunicate
larvae are free-swimming and have all 4 chordata characteristics
lancelet
fishlike because it swims and has segmented muscles and has all 4 chordata characteristics
lamprey
only surviving vertebrate with just cranium and backbone
Endosymbiosis Theory
Lynn Margulis
photosynthesizing bacteria -> chloroplasts
aerobic photeobacteria -> mitochondria
Vertebrates
cranium -> backbone -> jaws -> gills
Fish Characteristics
aquatic
paired gills for breathing
hinged jaws
paired fins
Fish Types
Osteichthyes (boney, swim bladder)
Chondrichthyes (cartiledge, move constantly)
Amphibian Characteristic
lungs + diffusion
strong + boney limbs
hydration through skin
external fertilization
eggs require water
ectothermic
Reptile Characteristics
overlapping scales for waterproof barrier to prevent dehydration
internal fertilization
amniotic eggs
ectothermic
Bird Characteristics similar to Reptiles
amniotic eggs
scales (legs)
feathers
Bird Characteristics
lightweight - no teeth, honeycombed bones, hollow feathers
wings + flight feathers for lift
strong breast muscles
endothermy b/c enzymes need to be at constant temp to make ATP
4-chambered heart
Mammal Characteristics
mammary glands
hair
4 types of teeth
Mammal Types
monotremes (amniotic eggs)
Marsupials (embryo in uterus/marsupium)
Eutherians (long gestation in uterus)
Human Classification
D - Eukarya
K - Animal
P - Chordata
subP - Vertebrata
C - Mammalia
O - Primate
F - Hominidae
G - Homo
S - sapien
population size
# individuals of the species
population density
# individuals/unit area
quadrat sample plots
average # individuals/plot x total # plots
capture-recapture
tagged/N = tagged2/caught
population distribution
clumped
uniform
random
Zero population growth
birth = death
Population Growth
G = r (b-d) x N
exponential growth model
unregulated growth of a population under ideal conditions
j-shaped
G=rn
humans, bacteria
logistic growth model
population growth is slowed by limiting factors as the population increases
s-shaped
G=rn(K-N/K)
carrying capacity
K
max population size an environment can support
variable because of environmental changes
limiting factors on populations
density dependent - food, space, disease, toxic waste buildup, predation, street
density independent - flood, fire, natural disaster
Survivorship Curves
Type 1 - high death rates in old, few offspring with good parental care, large mammals
Type 2 - intermediate death throughout ages, small mammals and large birds
Type 3 - high death rates in young, lots of offspring with no parental care, insects and plants
life history + traits
life history = the adaptations that influence reproduction + account for differences seen in survivor curves
1. age of sexual maturity
2. size of liter
3. frequency of reproduction
4. parental care
r-strategists
Type III survivorship curves
selection for maximum reproduction
k-strategists
Type I and II survivorship curves
select for living at carrying capacity densities
demographic transition
transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates
population keeps growing because death rate falls before birth rate
Hierarchy in Ecology
organisms
populations
communities
ecosystem
biosphere
5 types of interspecific interactions in communities
competition
predation
parasitism
mutualism
commensalism
symbiosis
2 or more species living in close association with each other for part or all of their life cycle
interspecific competition
2 species competing for the same resources
competitive exclusion principle
Gause
- 2 species competing for the same resources cannot coexist
niche
population's role in the community
- where they live, what they eat, time of feeding
2 outcomes of competitive exclusion
1. extinction for 1 species
2. resource partitioning - evolution through adaptation (NS) where 1 species changes its niche
predator
consumer of another living organism
prey
thing eaten by predator
- plant, bacteria, animal, fungi
coevolution
series of reciprocal adaptations of 2 species
plant adaptations against herbivores
physical = spines, thorns, silica
chemical = toxins, bad smells/tastes
recruitment = bringing in another predator
animal adaptations against predators
mechanical = shells, thorns, horns
chemical = venom, toxins
camouflage
behavioral = hiss, show teeth, packs/herds
mimicry
batesian mimicry
harmless species mimics dangerous one
mullerian mimicry
2 harmful species mimic each other to reinforce "danger" idea
parasitism
one species benefits while other is negatively effected
- parasite doesn't want to kill host
social parasites
take advantage of social behavior of hosts
commensalism
positive to one species and neutral to other
mutualism
reciprocal benefits for both species
4 types of animal tissue
epithelial
connective
- loose (fibers)
- dense (tendons, ligaments)
- bone, cartilage, blood, adipose
muscle
- involuntary = cardiac, smooth
- voluntary = skeletal
nervous
epithelial tissue
free surface
basement membrane
sheets that cover external surfaces or line the inside of organs/cavities
- inside cavity or outside surface of skin
- side attached to a dense mat of extracellular matrix consisting of fibrous proteins + polysaccharides
secretory epithelium
glandular epithelium
exocrine
secretions released onto free surface + carried through ducts/tubes
endocrine
no ducts, secrete from free surface directly into body fluid/blood
simple squamous
one cell layer, flattened
- diffusion + filtration
- aveoli of lungs, capillaries
simple cuboidal
one cell layer, cube-shaped
- secretion + absorption
- line kidney + ovaries + testies + various ducts
simple columnar
one cell layer, tall column
- ciliated or microvilli
- secretion, movement (cilia), absorption (microvilli)
- line airways + digestive system
stratified squamos
several layers of flattened cells
- protection, covers areas of high abrasion
- skin, mouth, esophagus
what constrains diffusion?
surface area to volume ratio
interstitial fluid
fluid that contains blood vessels containing blood cells
how do you maximize surface area?
folds, long + thin body
homeostasis
the activities of cells, tissues, organs, + organ systems that keep an organism's steady state in a range that cells can tolerate
negative feedback
a control mechanism to prevent small changes from becoming too big
positive feedback
amplifies a reaction
functions of saliva
- lubrication/mucous
- chemical digestion (amylase breaks down amolose (starch))
- neutralizes acids in food
functions of teeth
mash food (mechanical breakdown)
functions of tongue
tastebuds, swallowing
3 components of oral cavity
tongue, teeth, saliva
pharynx
allows us to swallow without breathing in food
entrance to both the trachea + esophagus
esophagus
smooth muscle contractions bring food through this tube to the stomach in 5 to 10 seconds
stomach functions
1. mechanical churning
2. storage
3. produces acid + enzymes for digestion
small intestine functions
1. site for completion of chemical breakdown of all macromolecules
2. absorption of all macromolecules
3. increased surface area
pancreas function
produces enzymes to secrete into the small intestine
1. carbohydrates - pancreatic amylase
2. proteins - trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase
3. lipids - lipase
4. nucleic acids - pancreatic nuclease

produces bicarbonate to neutralize the acidity of the chyme coming from the stomach so that the enzymes can work
liver function
produces bile (emulsifies lipids)
gall bladder function
stores bile from liver
large intestine (colon) function
1. concentrate waste (remove 90%) water
2. storage of waste
3. bacteria (symbiotic - make bacteria)
incomplete digestive system
mouth = anus
- can only digest one meal at a time so animals can't have high metabolic needs
complete digestive system
specialized along its length
digestive system of birds
1. pointy beak for picking up seeds
2. crop to store seeds
3. gizzard to grind up seeds since past mouth
digestive system of rodents (herbivores)
1. no gall bladder needed (no animal fat to digest)
2. really large caecum in between small + large intestine
- contains bacteria to break down cellulose
Digestive system of ruminant animals
(hooved)
- teeth designed for grinding
- four-chambered stomach allows for digestion of fiber -> re-chewing -> digestion again
Digestive system of mammalian carnivores
- gorges itself rapidly and doesn't chew its food
- large stomach
- short small intestines
open circulatory system
vessels are open-ended into the body cavity
- no distinction between interstitial fluid and blood
- invertebrates (insects, mollusks)
closed circulatory system
(cardiovascular system)
- completely closed network
- distinction between interstitial fluid and blood
ex. = all vertebrates, some invertebrates (earthworms, squid)
one circuit = fish - blood flow is slow after gills
two circuits = all other vertebrates - after blood travels through the lungs, it is repumped by the heart
3-chambered heart = not as efficient because highly oxygenated blood returning from the lungs mixes with blood containing a lot of CO2 (amphibians, reptiles)
4-chambered heart = crocodiles, birds, mammals
How are CO2 and O2 diffused in the circulatory system?
along partial pressure gradients (high -> low) in lung alveolar cells + the circulatory system
What happens to the human body at high altitudes?
erythroporetin (hormore) is secreted from the kidneys into the bone marrow which produces more RBCs
How is CO2 transported in the circulatory system?
10% dissolved in plasma
30% bound to hemoglobin
60% bicarbonate (reversible reaction) (increases pH)
Order of blood flow around heart
heart -> arteries -> arteriole -> capillaries -> venule -> vein -> heart
Arteries + Arterioles
vasoconstriction
vasodialation
carry blood away from the heart (usually with O2 but not always)
fastest speed (just left the heart) but slows down with distance because of friction + narrower vessles
thick smooth muscle cell wall, elastic layers
vasoconstriction = smooth muscle cells constrict and increase the blood pressure or act as sphincters to shunt blood flow
vasodialation = smooth muscle cells relax
Capillaries
ultrafiltration
capillary reabsorption
connect arterioles + venuoles
- don't always have blood in them (smooth muscle cell sphincters in the arterioles control this)
slowest speed (exchange)
gradient pressure (higher at arteriole end than venule end)
simple squamous, designed for exchange
- O2 and CO2 by diffusion
- other molecules by active transprot or exocytosis/endocytosis
ultrafiltration = at the arteriole end of a capillary bed, hydrostatic pressure is higher + plasma is pushed between the 'leaky' endothelial cells
capillary reabsorption = at the venule end of the capillary bed, osmosis drives water into vessel (b/c of the higher solute concentration in plasma compared to interstitial fluid)
Veins/ Venules
carry blood to the heart (mostly without O2 but sometimes with)
slow speed but gets faster as it moves toward the heart
lowest pressure (furthest from the heart)
valves keep blood from flowing backwards
Four Chambered Heart
- atria
- ventricle
- AV valve
- semilunar valve
atria = receive blood from veins
ventricles = receive blood from atria and pump to arteries
AV valves = between atrium + ventricle
Semilunar valves = between ventricle + artery
diastole
heart is relaxed
systole
contraction
- atria contracts (AV valve open, semilunar closed)
- ventricle contracts (AV valve close, semilunars open)
pulse
rhythmic stretch of arteries
- measures health/efficiency of heart
blood pressure
force exerted on arteries
1. width of vessels (constriction of smooth muscle or atherosclerosis)
2. volume - change in hydration or blood lose
blood pressure healthy
120/80
hypertension = more than 140/90
measures health of vessels
3 cellular components of blood
RBC, WBC, platlets
plasma
90% water, 10% solvent for plasma proteins, ions, molecules, glucose, O2, CO2, N2, lipids, vitamins
RBC
flat biconcave discs with nuclei
120 lifespan
anemia = too few RBC or hemoglobin, slow oxygen delivery -> slow metabolism
polycythemia = too many RBC or hemoglobin, blood more viscous -> increased blood pressure
platlets
membrane-wrapped fragments of cytoplasm
clump together at site of damage + release substances to prolong muscle spasm + attract more platlets
fibrinogen
rod-like plasma proteins
converge as long, insolube threads that stick to exposed collagen fibers at damaged site to form a net that traps blood cells + platlets
immunity
capacity to resist and combat infection
barrier definition
prevents pathogen from entering or attacks pathogen with mechanical/chemical defenses
innate definition
quick + general
does not change over time (no memory) (non-specific)
all animals
adaptive definition
slow-responding + highly specific
memory (faster + more efficient response the second time)
vertebrates
physical barriers
protective linings
skin - layered, stratified squamous, dead waxy outer layer
mechanical barriers
trap or flush out pathogens
mucous (respiratory or digestive tract)
earwax
chemical barriers
destroy pathogens
urine (acidic)
gastric acid (HCl)
lysozyme in mucous - enzyme destroys polysaccharides specific to cell wall of bacteria
innate - phagocytes
inject stuff
macrophage - patrol interstitial fluid of tissues, first responders
- release soluble signals (cytokines) at attract more phagocyes
- engulf bacterium or non-self particle (antigen) to destroy it
- alert adaptive immune system (antigen presenting APC), present particles of pathogen to lymphocytes
neutrophils = circulate and enter tissues in response to cytokines
- "kamikazes" of the immune system, engulf and kill with peroxide + bleach
dendritic cells = engulf antigen
- alert adaptive immune system (present antigen to it)
innate - complement
positive feedback
1. attract phagocytes to site of infection, like sniffing
2 form membrane to poke holes in bacteria cell walls or plasma membranes
3. coat pathogens to make them easily noticed by phagocytes
innate - inflammation
four signs: painful, swollen, red, hot
trigger?: invasion by pathogen, cytokines, complements
effect?: vasodilators (histamine) produced by immune cells -> leaky vessels -> swelling -> pressure on nerves
innate - fever
prostaglandins act on hypothalamus to raise body's thermostat
why?
1. immune cells might work/divide faster
2. some pathogens might be killed
Antibody Mediated
effector cell?
effect?
target?
B cell (lymphocyte)
produce antibodies
extracellular - pathogens circulating in blood and tissues (such as bacteria)
antibodies
soluble proteins that bind antigens
Cell Mediated
effector cell?
effect?
target?
cytotoxic T cell (lymphocyte)
pokes holes in infected cells -> cell death
intracellular - body's own cells infected with intracellular pathogens (such as viruses)
Commonalities between Antibody Mediated and Cell Mediated
- requires antigen-presenting cells that have engulfed the pathogen (present fragments of pathogen in MHC-antigen complex)
- antigen presentation activates helper T cell (lymphocyte) which in turn activate the B and T lymphocyte effectors
- specificity = lymphocytes that have receptors that recognize only one antigen (unlike innate system)
- diversity = there are billions of different lymphocytes each able to recognize one antigen = billions of different antigens recognized by system
- memory = a second encounter with an antigen occurs much faster (unlike innate)
- self vs. non-self = recognize through surface molecules that one's own body cells are not invaders
spermatogenesis
location
formation of sperm
seminiferous tubules in testes
testosterone
hormone that is essential in sperm formation + is secreted by Leydig cells in the testes
- controlled by negative feedback loops with other hormones secreted by the hypothalamus (GnRH) and pituitary (LH) and (FSH)
epididymis
sperm mature + are stored here
where do mature sperm travel?
epididymis -> vas deferens -> urethra
seminal vesicles
gland that produces fructose in semen (nourishment)
prostrate gland
produces basic/alkaline fluid in semen to counteract urine in the urethra + acidity on the vagina
bulbourethral gland
secretes lubricative mucus in semen
oogenesis
formation of eggs (takes decades)
location of oogenesis
within follicle of ovaries