Bio 101

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Newly Human created Ecosystems

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Modifying/intruding into established ecosystems/webs

- humans becoming intermediate or definitive hose because of new interaction with organisms

ex. dams & irrigation, industrialization & human comfort, transportation & travel, food production

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What is a parasite?

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Lives in or on a host, gets nutrition and causes damage

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Symbiosis

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The living together of different organisms

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Trophic levels

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where an organism fits into a food chain/web

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endoparasites

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parasites inside a host

ex tape worm

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ectoparasites

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lives outside a host

ex. ticks

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hyperparasites

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parasites of a parasite

ex. sealous

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Molecular parasites

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transposable elements; segments that replicate themselves and stay in chromosome

ex. viruses

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Definitive host

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the host that the parasite reaches sexual maturity on/in

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intermediate host

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host the parasite undergoes developmental and/or morphological changes in/on

ex. prey of a definitive host

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Vectors

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micropredators that transmit infective stages from one host to another

ex. mosquito

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transport host

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host that serves to transport the parasite; no development of parasite occurs; may be obligatory often to bridge an ecological or trophic gap

ex. tadpole

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Resevoir

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animals that are normal hosts for parasites that can also affect humans

(these diseases are called zoonotic)

ex. HIV, Ebola, Malaria

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Indirect life cycle

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more than one host is require for the parasite to complete its life cycle

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direct life cycle

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requires only one host

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fecundity

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reproducing at high rates to compensate for lack of sight/brain --> increasing chances of survival

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gene

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physical and function unity of heredity

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genotype

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the combination of alleles that an individual carries

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phenotype

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the suit of traits an individual exhibits (how an organism perceives for selection)

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extended phenotype

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when the genes from one individual impact the phenotype of another

(parasites can manipulate host phenotype to aid in survival and/or transmission to next host) --> change in coloration

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Favoritization

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natural selection can act upon any heritable trait that increases the chance for survival or transmission

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Evolution

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change in allele frequency over time

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Virulence

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degree of damage a parasite causes its hosts, especially in regards to the reduction of the host's fitness

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Microevolution

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evolutionary change of populations through time, within the species level

(shorter time scale - mutation, selection, drift, immigrants)

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Macroevolution

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evolutionary change above the species level. The creation of biodiversity (longer time scale)

(mutation, selection, drift, immigrants, time)

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Mutation

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Any genetic change; the source of genetic variation

- arise through replication

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Selection

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differential survival and reproduction

(best genes get passed on; without variation, species would go extinct)

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Genetic drift

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random change in allele frequency due to sampling a finite number of gametes (sampling error) - less variation with fewer gametes

effects: variance in allele frequences across populations increase; with much fewer numbers, variation is much less and can lose genetic variation

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Optimal strategy

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The phenotype that increases the fitness the most given the environment

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Evolutionary stable strategy

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a complex strategy that, when adopted by the majority of individuals, can not be taken over by any other strategy

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Phylogenetics

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Estimating evolutionary relationships among organisms

(tree = hypothesis of the evolutionary relationships between taxa)

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Node

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Most common recent ancestor

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Monophyletic

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group that contains all descendants of most recent common ancestor

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Paraphyletic

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Some but not all form most common ancestor

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Polyphyletic

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Do not share common ancestor, must go back to root of all

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synapomorphy

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shared, derived trait in a monophyletic group

(allows you to build a tree) ex. spots

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Vicariance

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Fragmentation of widespread ancestral distribution by the appearance of a new barrier

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Dispersal

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movement across a pre-existing barrier

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Ecology

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Study of the interactions between organisms and between organisms and their nonliving environment

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population

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a group of organisms of the same species living and interacting in a particular area

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community

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different populations of different species in a defined habitat

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Ecosystem

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all living organisms and nonliving components of an environment in which they interact

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Distribution pattern

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how organisms distributed in given geographic space

(random- plants, clumped - herds, uniform- penguins)

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Subpopulation

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localized patches of individuals together forming a population

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geographic range

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distribution of species, collective occurrance of populations

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Space fragmentation

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Pond with frogs with parasite --> little gene flow/migration if pond of frogs is isolated (population of parasite forms)

- introduction of dragonfly complicates

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Host species fragmentation

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Pond with frogs with parasite --> parasites can live in more than one host, can infect a toad too (population of parasite in frog and population in toad, alternation of host an occur, success of one over the other)

- if toad dies out, parasite adapts to frog

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Host individual fragmentation

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Fragmentation in a specific host: toad can represent a subpopulation of a whole population of toads in a pond

- each host can contain a subpopulation of parasites

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Infrapopulation

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ensemble of parasites of same species inhabiting a single host individual

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xenopopulation

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ensemble of parasites of the same species inhabiting a population of hosts of a particular species

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population

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ensemble of parasites of the same species inhabiting populations of two or more host species

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Meta population

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ensemble of all interconnected populations of a species of parasites within all host species

(same parasite across different habitats in an area on an given host species --> multiple ponds)

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Sink vs. Source

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Sinks = less productive, dead end

Source = allow adaptation and evolution

If xenopopulations become more isolated from each other, speciation of parasite can occur

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Community

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Interacting populations of different species in a defined habitat

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Infracommunity

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the ensemble of parasites of all species infecting an individual host

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Xenocommunity

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An ensemble of parasites of all species infecting a defined population of a particular host species

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Compound community

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ensemble of parasites of all species infecting geographically close populations of several host species so that these parasites interact to a certain degree

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Virulence

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Parasite induced loss of fitness; loss in ability to reproduce/pass on genes

--> not Pathogenicity: changes in the host caused by the parasite

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Cost of virulence

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Host-Induced loss of fitness(parasite has interest in not bearing too much loss of virulence but hosts wants parasite gone)

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Host resistance

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reducing the changes of parasite having successful encounter with the host

- selecting for/development of new defense mechanisms

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Red Queen hypothesis

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Parasite locks on to the most common host rather than the rare hosts; gives the rare host advantage of reproducing while common host #s decrease, when common host dies out parasite adapts to rare host

- cyclical evolution

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Reproductive barriers

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- hybrid species: if two species were to mate, hybrid would be sicker and more susceptible to species; less defense capabilities --> keeps species from mating and allows speciation

ex. Mice, mallards and ducks

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Parasite arbitrage

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the effect that parasites can have on competition between free-living species

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Interhost competition

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Many parasites can affect more than one host (parasites generally have different infection frequencies and intensities on different species)

- hosts can have differentiated sensitivity

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Parasites maintaining or increasing biodiversity

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1. leveling competition fields

Successful species get infected, gives change for species that are better at resisting parasites but worse at gathering resources a chance. Example: Red flour beetle and Confused beetle (red flour = dominant, so more infected but confused has better resistance)

Example 2: great tit and blue tit --> great tit lays fewer eggs but has greater resistance; blue tit dominant - when parasites infect both, blue tit more disadvantaged

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Human mediated examples

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Spanish colonization: Europeans introducing new diseases and killing 90% of native mortality rate

European eels: major food source; gall parasite in gills of fish got into eels; brought down native population when eating eels

Plague in Iran: wild gerbils vs. cropland gerbils --> wild gerbils resistant, crop gerbils sensitive; when introduced to crop gerbiles, can infect humans

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Parasites driving distribution patterns

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Deer and Moose --> keeps populations separate