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232 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

The word SCIENCE is derived from Latin and means?

To know

The search for information and explanation

Inquiry

recorder observations or items of information

Data

Descriptions rather than measurements

Qualitative Data

Recorder measurements

Quantitative Data


Draws conclusions through the logical process of induction?

Inductive Reasoning



Inductive reasoning is always linked to?

Discovery Science




Which involves analyzing data and making connections or correlations between natural phenomena.




"The sun always rises in the East"



A tentative answer to a well framed question




-Lead to predictions that can be tested or further observed.

Hypotheses



-Hypotheses are tested through?




-Uses general premises to make specific predictions.

Deductive Reasoning





Deductive reasoning often involve….

if… then… statements.




"If organisms are made of cells and humans are organisms THEN humans are composed of cells"



Hypothesis can never be proved, only…




Hypothesis must be...

-Supported.




-Testable and falsifiable

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Observation


2. Question


3. Hypotheses


4. Predictions


5. Experiment


6. Measuring results and rethinking.

A theory is ________ than a hypotheses and can lead to new testable hypotheses.

-Broader in Scope




-Supported by large body of evidence.




-Explains Phenomena




Examples "Theory of Natural Selection, Cell Theory and Germ Theory of Disease.



Law

-The Result of repeated observations




-Confirmed through inductive reasoning.




-Always applies under the same conditions.

The process of change that has transformed life on earth.

Evolution



The scientific study of life

Biology



Life is recognized by…..?

What living things do.

Seven Characteristics of Life

1. Order


2. Regulation


3. Energy Processing


4. Growth and Development


5. Reproduction


6. Response to the environment


7. Evolutionary Adaption.

Life's Hierarchy of Organization




-Upper Tier

Biosphere --> Organism



All the environments of Earth that support Life

biosphere



all the living and nonliving components of a particular environment

Ecosystem



All the living organisms in an ecosystem

Community



An interacting group of individuals in on species

Population



An individual living entity

Organism.

Middle tier

Organism, Organ Systems, Organs, Tissues.

Lower Tier

Cells, Organelles, molecules, atoms.

"The whole is greater than the sum of its parts"




The combination of the parts that form a more complex organization is called _______.

Synergy

______ result from arrangement and interaction of parts within a system.

Emergent Properties.




"A bike only functions correctly with all the parts"



A system is a combination of components that…..

form a more complex organization.



Constructs models for the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems.

System Biology

____ and ____ of living organisms are closely related.

Structure and Function

The lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life.

Cell

All cells:

-Are enclosed by a membrane


-Use DNA as their genetic information.



Have membrane-enclosed organelles, largest of which is usually the nucleus.

Eukaryotic cells

Are simpler and smaller, and do not contain a nucleus or other membrane enclosed organelles.

Prokaryotic cells

Encode information for building proteins?

Genes

DNA is ______ by offspring from their parents

inherited.

Process of converting information from gene to cellular product.

Gene Expression

Energy _____ transforms 100% some is lost as ____.

-Never




-Heat

Energy flows through an ecosystem, usually entering as ____ and exiting as ____.

-Light




-Heat

Cells are able to coordinate various chemical pathways through a mechanism called?




-Allows biological processes to self-regulate

Feedback

As more of product accumulates, the process that makes it slow and less product is made.

Negative Feedback



As more product accumulates the process that makes it speeds it up and more product is made.

Positive Feedback

Organisms are modified……..

Descendants of common ancestors.

Accounts for the unity and diversity of life?

Evolution.

Branch of biology that names and classifies species into groups of increasing breadth?

Taxonomy

Broadest units of classification

Domains followed by Kingdoms.

3 Domains

Bacteria




Archaea




Eukarya





Domains Bacteria and Archaea compose the

Prokaryotes

Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic organisms, and four kingdoms...

-Plants (produce own food by photosynthesis)




-Fungi (absorb nutrients)




-Animals (ingest their food)




-Protists (unicellular/may produce or ingest own food).

Striking unity that underlies the diversity of life?

DNA is universal genetic language.

-Natural Selection




-Theory explained the duality of unity and diversity.

Charles Darwin.

Unity in diversity arises from?

"Descent with modification"

Living organisms are subject to basic laws of ____ and _____.

Physics and Chemisty

Organisms are composed of…..

Matter




-Anything that takes up space



A substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions

Chemical

A substance consisting of tow or more elements in a fixed ratio.

Compound




-Emergent property.

Smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element.

Atom

Subatomic particles of atoms

-Neutrons




-Protons (positive)




-electrons (negative)

Make up 96% of living matter

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen




CHON

Form the atomic nucleus

Neutrons and protons

Form cloud around the nucleus

Electrons

____ mass and ____ mass are almost identical

Proton and Neutron.

Number of protons =

Atomic number

Sum of protons plus neutrons =

Mass number

The atoms total mass = mass number =

Atomic Mass

How to determine the number of neutrons in an atom?

# neutrons = atomic mass- atomic #.

Do all carbon atoms have same # of protons?

Yes

Do all carbon atoms have same number of neutrons?

No

Two atoms of same element that differ in number of neutrons.

Isoptopes

Decay spontaneously, giving off particles and energy.



Radioactive Isotopes.

Capacity to cause change

Energy

Energy that matter has because of its location or structure.

Potential energy

Atom's state of potential energy

Energy level or electron shell.

Chemical behavior of atom is determined by distribution of…

electrons in electron shell

Valence Electrons are those on the ____ shell.

Outermost/ Valence Shell

Elements with full valance shells are

Chemically inert.

A _____ consists of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.

Molecule.

The notations used to represent atoms and bonding.

Structural formula/ Molecular Formula

A combination of two or more different elements

Compound

Atoms share electrons equally

non-polar covalent bonds

Atoms do not share electrons equally

Polar covalent bonds

Charged atom or molecule

Ion

Pos. charged ion

Cation

Neg. charged ion

Anion

Attraction between anion and cation

Ionic Bond

Most of the strongest bonds in organisms are

Covalent bonds

Weak chemical bonds

Hydrogen and ionic

Forms when hydrogen is polarity covalently bonded to one atom and is also attracted to another atom.

Hydrogen.

Hydrogen-bonding partners are usually

Oxygen or Nitrogen

Attractions between molecules that are close together due to these "hot spots"

Van der Waals Interactions




-Very weak interactions, but large in numbers, these can be strong.

The biological medium on earth

Water

Cells are about 70-95%

Water

Polar covalent bonds in water molecules result in

Hydrogen bonding.

Water is a polar molecule.

Opposite ends have opposite charges, which allows to form hydrogen bonds with each other.

Four of waters properties that facilitate an environment for life are

1. Cohesive behavior


2. Ability to moderate temperature


3. Expansion upon freezing


4. Versatility as a solvent.

As a group, hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together


Cohesion

Similar to cohesion, but involves sticking to other substances

Adhesion

Measure of how hard it is to break the surface of liquid

Surface tension

Amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change its temp by 1 degree C.

Specific Heat

Water resists changing temperature due to its...

high specific heat.

Waters hight specific heat can be traced to…

Hydrogen bonding

As a liquid evaporates, its remaining surface cools, a process called

Evaporative Cooling

Evaporating cooling of water helps ____ temps in organisms and bodies of water.

stabilize.

ice floats because the hydrogen bonds are more "ordered" making ice

less dense

Liquid that is a homogenous mixture of substances

Solution

Dissolving agent of a solution

Solvent

Substance that is dissolved

Solute

Solution in which water is the solvent

Aqueous Solution

Describes a substance that has affinity for water

Hydrophobic

Does not have an affinity for water

Hydrophilic

The amount of H or OH of a solution is measured using

pH scale

Any substance that increases the H concentration of a solution.

Acid




-have pH values less than 7.

Any substance that reduces the H concentration of a solution.

Base




-have pH values greater than 7.



Most biological fluids have a pH in the range of 6 to 8.

Cells maintain internal pH close to 7.

Substances that minimize changes in concentrations of H and OH in a solution.

Buffers

The main product of fossil fuel combustion

CO2

The burning of fossil fuels is also a major source of ____ and ______.

Sulfer oxides and Nitrogen oxides.

Rain, fog or snow with a pH lower than 5.2?

Acid precipitation

Living organisms consist mostly of _____ - based compounds.

Carbon

Most organic compounds contain _____ atoms in addition to carbon atoms.

Hydrogen

Determines the kinds and number of bonds an atom will form with other atoms

Electron configuration

______ _______ form the skeletons of most organic molecules. They very in length and shape.

Carbon Chains

Organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen.

Hydrocarbons




-Release large amounts of energy.

Properties of organic molecules depend on_______ _______ and on ________ _______ attached to it.

-carbon skeleton




-molecular components

Components of organic molecules that are involved in chemical reactions.

Functional Groups




-Number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties.

The seven functional groups that are most important to chemistry of life.

1. Hydroxyl Group


2. Carbonyl Group


3. Carboxyl Group


4. Amino Group


5. Methyl Group


6. Phosphate Group


7. Sulfydryl Group

All living things are made up of four classes of large biological molecules:

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Long molecule consisting of many smaller building blocks.

Polymer

Small building-block molecules

Monomers

Three of the four classes of life's organic molecules are polymers

Carbohydrates


Proteins


Nucleic Acids

Occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule

Dehydration Synthesis.

Polymers are disassembled to monomers by ______, a reaction that is reverse of dehydration reaction

Hydrolysis.

-Serve as fuel and building material




-Include sugars and the polymers of sugars




-Macromolecules are polysaccharides




-Simplest are monosaccharides.

Carbohydrates





Have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O

Monosaccharieds

Formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Polymers of sugars

Polysaccharides

Two types of polysaccharides

Storage --> Stores energy for cells




Structural--> Build things for cells.

Storage polysaccharides

-Starch


-plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers.




-Glycogen


-animals, stored in liver and muscle cells.



Structural polysaccharides

-

-Cellulose


-Cell Wall, polymer of glucose.


-Chitin


-exoskeleton of arthropods.


-cell walls of many fungi.

Class of large biological molecules that DO NOT form polymers.

Lipids.





Have no affinity for water.




They are hydrophobic because they consist of mostly non polar hydrocarbons.





Lipids

Most important lipids

Fat


Phospholipids


Steroids

Constructed from two types of smaller molecules: Glycerol and fatty acids.

Fats

Three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon.

Glycerol

Consist of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton

Fatty Acid.

Fatty acids very in length and in number and location of ….

Double bonds

Fatty acids have max. number of hydrogen atoms possible and NO double bonds.

Saturated.




-Solid at room temperature.


-Most animal fats.

Have one or more double bonds

Unsaturated fatty acids




-liquid at room temp.


-Plant fats and fish fats are unsaturated.



Major function of fat is?




mammals store their fat in?





Energy Storage




Adipose Tissue

Composed of two fatty acids and phosphate group attached to glycerol

Phospholipids.

Lipids having carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.

Steroids

Important steroid, component in animal cell membranes.

Cholesterol.

account for more that 50% of the dry mass of most cells.

Proteins

Protein function

-Structural Support


-Storage


-Cellular Communications


-Movement


-Defense against foreign substances


-Enzymes



I biologically functional molecule that consists of one or more polypeptides?

A Protein

Unbranched polymers built from 20 different amino acids?

Polypeptides

Organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups and differing side chains.

Amino Acids.

A polymer of amino acids

Polypeptide

Amino Acids are linked by

Peptide Bonds

Determines a protein's 3-dimensional structure?

Sequence of amino acids.

A proteins structure determines its?

Function

The ________ structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids.





-Primary




-Determined by inherited genetic info. (amino acids)



Consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain.




-Results in hydrogen bonds between amino acids.

Secondary Structure

Alpha helix

Coil

Beta pleated sheet

Folded Structure

Determined by interactions between amino acid side chains.

Tertiary Structure.




-include bonds and hydrophobic interactions.

Strong covalent bonds that may reinforce the proteins structure

Disulfide Bridges

Results when two ore more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule.

Quaternary Structure.



Loss of proteins native structure.

Denaturation.




-Biologically inactive



Protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins.

Chaperonins

Store, transmit and help express hereditary info.

Nucleic Acids

Amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a

Gene

Genes are made of ______, a nucleic acid made of monomers and _______.

DNA




Nucleotides

Stores information

DNA

Helps implement instructions

RNA

Directs synthesis of messenger RNA, and through mRNA, controls protein synthesis?

DNA

Nucleic acids are polymers called

Polynucleotides

Each polynucleotide are made of monomers called

Nucleotides

Each nucleotide has 3 parts

-Nitrogen Base


-Pentose Sugar


-Phosphate groups



Two families of nitrogenous bases:

Pyrimidines




Purines



Cytosine, thymine (DNA only), and uracil (RNA only)

Pyrimidines

Adenine and guanine

Purines

Sugar: DNA, RNA

Deoxyribose, ribose

RNA molecules usually exist as _____ nucleotide chains.

Single

Basic features of ALL cells

-Plasma membrane


-Semifluid substance called CYTOSOL


-Chromosomes (carry genes)


-Ribosomes (make proteins)

Prokaryotic cells are characterized by halving:

-No nucleus




-DNA in an unbound region called nucloid.




-No membrane-bound organelles




-Cytosol bound by the plasma membrane.




Other structures: flagella, fimbriae, capsule.

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having

-DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by membraneous nuclear envelope.




-Membrane-bound organelles




-Cytoplasm between plasma membrane and nucleus.


-Much larger than prokaryotic cells.

Selective barrier that allow sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and water to enter and exit the cell.

Plasma Membrane

Animal Cells

-Bounded by plasma membrane alone.




-Lack a cell wall




-Contain Centrosomes and lysosomes. (absent in plant cells).




-Can have flagella.

Plant Cells

-Bound by both a plasma membrane and a rigid cellulose cell wall.




-Have central vacuole and chloroplasts




-Usually lack centrioles, lysosomes, and flagella.

Double membrane that encloses nucleus, separates it from cytoplasm.

Nuclear Envelope.

DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called

Chromatin.

Located within the nucleus and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis.

-Nucleolus

Made of ribosomal RNA and protein

Ribosomes

Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations:

-In the cytosol (free ribosomes).




-On the outside of ER or nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes).

Membrane continuous with nuclear envelope.

Endoplasmic Reticulum.




-Biosynthetic factory.

Functions of smooth ER

-Synthesizes lipids.




-Metabolizes carbs




-Detoxifies drugs and poisons




-Stores calcium ions.



Functions of rough ER

-Has bound ribosomes




-Modifies and packages proteins




-Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes.




-Is a membrane factory for cell.



Shipping and Receiving center.




-Consists of flattened membraneous saves called?

Golgi Apparatus




-Cisternae

Functions of Golgi Apparatus

-Modifies products of the ER




-Manufactures certain macromolecules




-Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles.

Membranous sac of digestive enzymes that break down macromolecules found in food and worn out organelles.

Lysosome.

Lysosomal enzymes work best in ______ environment inside the lysosome.

Acidic.

Diverse maintenance compartments

Vacuole.




-Plant or fungal cells.



-Tree types of vacuoles

-Food vacuoles




-Contractile vacuoles: found in freshwater protists, pump excess water out of cells.




-Central vacuoles: found in mature plant cells, hold organic compounds and water.

Sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that harvests energy from food.

Mitochondria

Found in plants and algae, are sites of photosynthesis, a process to convert light energy into chemical energy.

Chloroplasts.

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria:

-Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA




-Grow and reproduce somewhat independently




-Enveloped by a double envelope.

Mitochondria have a smooth out membrane and an inner membrane folded into

-Cristae

Inner membrane creates two compartments:



-Intermembrane space




-mitochondrial matrix.



Chloroplasts contain ______, enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll.

Chlorplasts structures includes:

-Thylakoids: membranous sacs, stacked to form GRANUM.




-Stroma: the internal fluid.

Membrane has fluid structure with a "mosaic" of various proteins embedded in it.

Fluid Mosaic Model.

Affects membrane fluidity.




-At ____ temps, it stops phospholipids from moving too much.




-At ____ temps, it maintains fluidity by preventing tight packing.

-Cholesterol




-High




-Low.

Six major functions of membrane proteins

1. Transport


2. Enzymatic activity


3. Signal transduction


4. Cell-cell recognition


5. Intercellular joining


6. Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix.

Plasma membranes are_______, regulating cell's molecular traffic

Selectively Permeable

Allow passage of certain substances across the membrane.

Transport Proteins

Allow water to move across plasma membrane.

Aquaporins.

Move from an are of high concentration to an area of low concentration.



Diffusion.

Diffusion across a cell membrane does not require energy

Passive transport.

Diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane.

Osmosis.

The ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or low water.

Tonicity.

Solute concentration is the same as the inside of the cell.

Isotonic Solution

Solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water.

Hypertonic solution

Soluce concentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water.

Hypotonic solution.



The control of solute concentrations and water balance.

Osmoregulation.

Transport proteins assis in the passive movement of molecules accross the plasma membrane.

Facilitated Diffusion.

Moves substance against concentration gradient.


Requires energy

Active transport.

Used to export bulky molecules, such as proteins or polysaccharides.

Exocytosis.

Is used to import substances useful to the livelihood of the cell.

Endocytosis.

3 Kinds of endocytosis:

Phagocytosis - engulfing large molecules




Pinocytosis - Taking in small molecules.




Receptor-mediated endocytosis.



Cell Bursting

Lyse.