Bcba Exam

Front 1

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

Back 1

A scientific approach for discovering environmental variables that reliably influence socially significant behavior and for developing a technology of behavior change that is practical and applicable

- Evidence-based APPLIED science

Front 2

Science

Back 2

A systematic approach for seeking and organizing knowledge about the natural world. Science is based on Determinism

Front 3

Purpose of Science

Back 3

To achieve a through understanding of the phenomena under study. In ABA, the phenomena are socially important behaviors

Front 4

3 Levels of Scientific Understanding

Back 4

- Description

- Prediction

- Control

Front 5

Description

Back 5

Systematic observations that can be quantified and classified. Not causal explanations

Front 6

Prediction

Back 6

Two events may regularly occur at the same time. This does not necessarily mean one causes the other.

Front 7

Control

Back 7

Functional Relation. The highest level of scientific understanding. Experimental demonstration that manipulating one event (i.e., independent variable) results in another event (i.e., dependent variable)

Front 8

6 Attitudes of Science/ Philosophical Assumptions of Behavior

Back 8

- Determinism

- Empiricism

- Experimentation

- Replication

- Parsimony

- Philosophical Doubt

Front 9

Determinism

Back 9

- Cause and effect

- Lawfulness: if/then statements

- The world is ordinary and predictable

- Assumption of Science.Behavior is caused by some event.

Front 10

Empiricism

Back 10

- FACTS

- Experimental, data-based scientific approach, drawing upon observation and experience

- Requires objective quantification and detailed description of events

- Assumption of Science.Information is collected by objective observations

Front 11

Experimentation

Back 11

- The basic strategy of most sciences

- Requires manipulating variables so as to see the effects on the dependent variable (DV)

- An assessment to determine if one event caused another event

- Requires that all variables be controlled except the DV

Front 12

Replication

Back 12

- Repeating experiments

- The method that scientists use to determine the reliability and usefulness of their findings

- How scientists discover their mistakes, thus making science a self-correcting enterprise

Front 13

Parsimony

Back 13

- The simplest theory

- All simple and logical explanations must be ruled out before considering more complex explanations

- Helps scientists fit findings within the field's existing knowledge base

- Assumption of Science. Thesimplest explanation of behavior should be provided, all else being equal

Front 14

Philosophical Doubt

Back 14

Having healthy skepticism and a critical eye about the results of studies and your work with clients

Front 15

What is the acronym for the 6 attitudes of science/philosophical assumptions of behavior?

Back 15

DEER PP

Front 16

What is the acronym for the 3 scientific levels of understanding?

Back 16

DPC

Front 17

What is the acronym for the 7 Dimensions of ABA?

Back 17

BATCAGE

Front 18

What are the 7 Dimensions of ABA?

Back 18

- Behavioral

- Applied

- Technological

- Conceptually Sytematic

- Analytical

- Generality

- Effective

Front 19

Behavioral

Back 19

Behavior must be observable and measurable (e.g. not a description of feelings)

Front 20

Applied

Back 20

Behavior must be SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT. Also helps significant others (e.g., parents, peers, employers, etc.) so that they behave more positively towards the client

Front 21

Technological

Back 21

- Intervention must demonstrate control over the behavior

- Defines procedures clearly and in detail so they are replicable

- Provides written detail of procedures to permit replication of techniques in other settings.

Front 22

Conceptually Systematic

Back 22

All procedures used should be tied to the basic principles of behavior analysis from which they were derived

- Procedures are tied to the basic principles of behavior

- Use appropriate terminology and behavioral concepts

Front 23

Analytical

Back 23

- Functional relationship is demonstrated

- Describes when the experimenter has demonstrated a functional relation between the manipulated events and a reliable change in some measurable dimension of the targeted behavior

- Ultimate issue is believably: is the experimental control sufficient to prove a reliable functional relation?

Front 24

Generality

Back 24

- Extends behavior change across time, settings, or other behaviors

- Must demonstrate maintenance and generalization of the behavior

Front 25

Effective

Back 25

- Improves behavior in a practical manner, not simply making a change that is statistically significant

- Demonstrate a meaningful change in the desired behavior

Front 26

Mentalism Terminology

Back 26

- Hypothetical construct

- Explanatory fiction

- Circular reasoning

Front 27

Mentalism

Back 27

An approach to explaining behavior that assumes an inner dimension exists and causes behavior

Front 28

Hypothetical Constructs

Back 28

- Imaginary Constructs

- Presumed, but unobserved process or entities

Front 29

Explanatory Fictions

Back 29

- Fictitious variables that are another name for the observed behavior. They contribute nothing to an understanding of the variables responsible for maintaining behaving

- Words that are associated with explanatory fiction include the following: "knows", "wants", "figures out", etc.

Front 30

Circular Reasoning

Back 30

The cause and effect are both inferred from the same information

Front 31

Behaviorism

Back 31

- The philosophy of the science of behavior

- Environmental explanation of behavior

Front 32

What is the acronym for the 4 branches of behavior analysis?

Back 32

CASE

Front 33

What are the 4 branches of behavior analysis?

Back 33

- Conceptual Analysis of Behavior

- ABA

- Behavior Service Delivery

- Experimental Analysis of Behavior

Front 34

Conceptual Analysis of Behavior (4 branches of behavior analysis)

Back 34

Examines philosophical, theoretical, historical, and methodological issues

Front 35

ABA (4 branches of behavior analysis)

Back 35

- Refers to behavior analysts that assess, monitor, analyze, revise (if needed), and communicate the effects of their work

- They create behavior-change tactics that can increase behavior, teach and maintain behavior, make behavior sensitive to environmental events, generalize behavior, reduce problem behavior, etc.

- Technology for improving behavior

Front 36

Behavior Service Delivery (4 branches of behavior analysis)

Back 36

- Refers to the many people in various fields of work (not BCBAs/BCaBAs) implementing ABA within their professionals

- Think of education, sports, psychology, job safety, health, business, animal training, commerce, etc.

- Because ABA has a lot of research to support it, other professions and/or people implement ABA strategies

Front 37

Experimental Analysis of Behavior (4 branches of behavior analysis)

Back 37

- Research on basic processes and principles

- Done mainly in laboratories

Front 38

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

Back 38

- Classical conditioning- respondent conditioning with dogs

- 1906 Pavlov published first studies

Front 39

John Broadus Watson

Back 39

- First person to describe behaviorism as a formal system

- Methodological behaviorism only looks at publicly observable events in their analysis of behavior

- They do NOT concern themselves with private events

- Watson said we should study behavior by direct observation of the relationship between environmental stimuli (S) and the responses (R) they bring about

Front 40

Burrhous Frederic Skinner

Back 40

- Skinner unveiled radical behaviorism to the world

- It is called RADICAL BEHAVIORISM because it included private events into an understanding of behavior

Front 41

How Did Skinner Come Up with Radical Behaviorism?

Back 41

- Darwinian Selectionism

- Pragmatism

Front 42

Darwinian Selectionism

Back 42

- 3-term conitngency with regard to SPECIES and survival

- A belief that all forms of life, form a single cells to complex cultures, evolve as a result of selection with respect to function

- Selection by consequences operates during the lifetime of the individual and it is similar to natural selection in the evolutionary history of species

- Operant selection by consequences requires variation in behavior. Behaviors that result in the best outcomes are selected and survive, leading to more adaptive repertoires

Front 43

Pragmatism

Back 43

- A probabilistic AB-because-of-C philosophy. At the level of behavior, the relation between the setting (A) and the behavior (B) is because of the consequence

- It focuses on answering the questions, "how do things come to be as they are?" and "how can things be changed?"

- Originally developed by Charles S. Peirce and William James, the doctrine stresses that the meaning of an idea or a position lies in its observable practical consequences, rather than by theory or dogma

Front 44

What are the two primary types of behavior?

Back 44

- Respondent behavior

- Operant behavior

Front 45

What are the different types of respondent behavior?

Back 45

Elicited, involuntary, reflex, reflexive relations, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, habituation

Front 46

Elicited

Back 46

"brought" out by stimuli that immediately precede them (i.e., antecedent stimuli)

Front 47

Reflex

Back 47

The eliciting stimulus (i.e. unconditioned stimulus or US) and the behavior it produces (i.e. unconditioned response or UR) that is part of an organism's genetic endowment

Front 48

Habituation

Back 48

When the eliciting stimulus is presented repeatedly over a short time, the strength of the respondent behavior diminishes

Front 49

Respondent Behavior

Back 49

The response component of a reflex; behavior that is elicited, or induced, by antecedent stimuli behaviors someone does not have to learn

Front 50

Phylogenic/Phylogeny

Back 50

- Behavior that is inherited genetically

- Respondent behavior is due to phylogenic history

Front 51

Respondent Conditioning

Back 51

- Ivan Pavlov

- When new stimuli acquire the ability to elicit respondents

Front 52

US

Back 52

Unconditioned Stimulus

Front 53

Unconditioned Stimulus

Back 53

Stimulus that elicits a behavior without any history or prior learning

Front 54

UR

Back 54

Unconditioned Response

Front 55

Unconditioned Response

Back 55

Response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

Front 56

NS

Back 56

Neutral Stimulus

Front 57

Neutral Stimulus

Back 57

Stimulus that does not elicit a response prior to conditioning

Front 58

CR

Back 58

Conditioned Response

Front 59

Conditioned Response

Back 59

A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Front 60

CS

Back 60

Conditioned Stimulus

Front 61

Conditioned Stimulus

Back 61

A neutral stimulus that comes to elicit through pairing with a unconditioned stimulus

Front 62

Operant Behavior

Back 62

Behavior that is selected, maintained, and brought under stimulus control as a function of its consequences; each person's repertoire of operant behavior is a product of his history of interactions with the environment

Front 63

What are the different types of Behaviorism?

Back 63

- Methodological behaviorism

- Radical behaviorism

Front 64

Methodological Behaviorism

Back 64

A philosophical position that views behavioral events that cannot be publicly observed as outside the realm of science

Front 65

Radical Behaviorism

Back 65

Attempts to understand all human behavior, including private events such as thoughts and feelings, in terms of controlling variables in the history of the person and the species

Front 66

Adaptation

Back 66

Reductions in responding evoked by an antecedent stimulus over repeated or prolonged presentations

Front 67

Ontogenic/Ontogeny

Back 67

Learning that results from an organism's interaction with his/her environment. The history of the development of an individual organism during its lifetime

Front 68

Operant Contingency

Back 68

The dependency of a particular consequence on the occurrence of the behavior. When a reinforcer or punisher is said to be "contingent" on a behavior, the behavior must be emitted for the consequence to occur

Front 69

What is the primary unit of analysis in ABA?

Back 69

3-Term Contingency (A-B-C)

Front 70

Contiguity

Back 70

When 2 stimuli occur close together IN TIME, resulting in an association of those 2 stimuli

Front 71

How does contiguity apply to respondent conditioning?

Back 71

Temporal contiguity (i.e. how close together in time) affects the pairing of the CS and US

Front 72

How does contiguity apply to operant conditioning?

Back 72

Temporal contiguity (how close together in time) affects the pairing of the behavior and consequence.

Front 73

Respondent Operant Interactions

Back 73

An experience can often include both respondent and operant conditioning that occur together at the same time

Front 74

What is not behavior?

Back 74

- Being hungry

- Being anxious

- Getting wet

- Receiving money

- Being blown over by a strong gust of wind

Front 75

What is the "dead man test"?

Back 75

"If a dead man can do it, it ain't behavior. And if a dead man can't do it, then it is behavior"

Front 76

What are the 3 principles of behavior?

Back 76

Scientifically derived rules of nature that describe the predictable relation between a biological organism's responses and objects and events that can influence behavior.

- Punishment

- Extinction

- Reinforcement

Front 77

What does PER stand for?

Back 77

- Punishment

- Extinction

- Reinforcement

Front 78

Response

Back 78

A single instance of behavior, measurable unit of analysis in the science of behavior.

Front 79

Behavior vs. Response

Back 79

Behavior: larger set/class of responses that share physical dimensions or functions

VS.

Response: A single instance of behavior

Front 80

Response Class

Back 80

A group of responses of varying topography all of which produce the same effect on the environment

Front 81

Can responses in the same response class look different?

Back 81

Yes. Membership in the same response class may have widely varying form whereas topographical variations among members of other response classes are limited

Front 82

Repertoire

Back 82

- All the behaviors that an individual can do

- A collection of knowledge and skills an individual has learned that are relevant to a particular task

Front 83

Environment

Back 83

Complex, dynamic universe of events that differs from instance to instance; All behaviors within an environmental context

Front 84

Stimuli

Back 84

Physical events that affect the behavior of an individual; stimuli may be internal or external to the individual; A stimulus is an energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells; Stimuli may occur prior to, during, or after a behavior; Stimuli may be described formally temporally and functionally

Front 85

3 Types of Nervous Systems (that are affected by stimuli)

Back 85

- Proprioceptive

- Interoceptive

- Exteroceptive

Front 86

Proprioceptive

Back 86

Stimulation from joints, tendons, muscles, etc., necessary for posture, balance and movement (related to internal events)

Front 87

Interoceptive

Back 87

Stimulation from organs; related to internal events

Front 88

Exteroceptive

Back 88

Think 5 senses: hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, and tasting

Front 89

Stimulus Class

Back 89

A group of antecedent stimuli that has a common effect on an operant class; group members of a stimulus class tend to evoke or abate the same behavior or response class, yet may vary across physical dimensions

Front 90

3 types of stimulus classes

Back 90

Formal

Temporal

Functional

Front 91

What does FTF stand for?

Back 91

Formal

Temporal

Functional

Front 92

Formal Stimulus Class

Back 92

Physical features of stimuli

- common topographies

- common relative relations

- infinite number of stimuli

- developed through stimulus generalization

Front 93

Temporal Stimulus Class

Back 93

Refers to TIME; Stimulus changes that exist or occur prior to the behavior of interest and stimulus changes that follow a behavior of interest

Front 94

Functional Stimulus Class

Back 94

Stimulus changes are understood best through a functional analysis of their effects on behavior; The effect of the stimulus on the behavior; there can be multiple functions of a single stimulus

Front 95

Arbitrary Stimulus Class

Back 95

Stimuli comprising this class evoke the same response, but they do NOT share a common stimulus feature. They do not physically look alike or share a relative relationship

- Limited number of stimuli

- Developed through stimulus equivalence

Front 96

Consequences

Back 96

One affect FUTURE behavior; Consequences select response classes, NOT individual responses

Front 97

Automaticity (of reinforcement and punishment)

Back 97

A person does not have to know what a consequence means for it to work; operant conditioning occurs automatically

Front 98

Automatic Reinforcement

Back 98

Reinforcement that occurs independent of the social mediation of others. Other people do NOT deliver the consequence. Naturally produced sensory consequences. You can have automatic reinforcement that is negative or positive

Front 99

Automatic Punishment

Back 99

Punishment that occurs independent of the social mediation of others. Other people do not deliver the consequence.

Front 100

Positive Reinforcement

Back 100

A process that occurs when a behavior is followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus that increases the future frequency of the behavior in similar conditions

Front 101

What are the 5 types of positive reinforcers?

Back 101

- Edible

- Activity

- Tangible

- Social

- Sensory

Front 102

What does EATSS stand for?

Back 102

- Edible

- Activity

- Tangible

- Social

- Sensory

Front 103

Negative Reinforcement

Back 103

A process that occurs when a behavior is followed immediately by the reduction or removal of a stimulus that increases the future frequency of the behavior in similar conditions

Front 104

Escape

Back 104

A response that stops an ongoing aversive stimulus

Front 105

Avoidance

Back 105

A response that prevents or postpones the presentation of a stimulus

Front 106

What are the two types of avoidance?

Back 106

- Discriminated Avoidance

- Free-Operant Avoidance

Front 107

Discriminated Avoidance

Back 107

A contingency in which responding in the presence of a signal prevents the onset of a stimulus from which escape is a reinforcer; Warning

Front 108

Free-Operant Avoidance

Back 108

A contingency in which responses at any time during the interval prior to the scheduled onset of an aversive stimulus delays the presentation of the aversive stimulus. The avoidance behavior is "free" to occur at any time

Front 109

What is unethical about negative reinforcement?

Back 109

Creating an aversive condition for the individual is unethical and may even bring about more challenging behaviors

Front 110

Unconditioned Reinforcer/ Reinforcement

Back 110

A stimulus change that can increase the future frequency of behavior without prior pairing with any other form of reinforcement; no learning history is required

Front 111

Conditioned Reinforcer/ Reinforcement

Back 111

When a previously neutral stimulus acquires the ability to function as a reinforcer through stimulus-stimulus pairing with one or more unconditioned or conditioned reinforcers; Learning history required

Front 112

Generalized Conditioned Reinforcer

Back 112

A type of conditioned reinforcer that has been paired with many unconditioned and conditioned reinforcers; Does not depend on a motivating operation (MO) for its effectiveness

Front 113

Punishment

Back 113

When a response is followed immediately by a stimulus that decreases the future frequency of similar responses

Front 114

Are threats punishments?

Back 114

No, threats are not punishments. If a person stops a behavior when you threaten them, this is NOT because of punishment, but because the threat functions as the motivating operation (MO) that evokes alternative behaviors that avoid the threatened punishment

Front 115

Recovery from Punishment

Back 115

When punishment is stopped, its effects on the behavior are not permanent. The rate of the behavior will increase back to its original rate (and sometimes exceed it). Equivalent to extinction for reinforcement.

Front 116

Punisher vs. Aversive Stimulus

Back 116

Punisher: a stimulus change that decreases the future frequency of the behavior that immediately precedes it

VS.

Aversive Stimulus: Unpleasant stimulus

Front 117

Positive Punishment

Back 117

A process that occurs when the addition of a stimulus immediately following a behavior results in a decrease in the future frequency of the behavior

Front 118

5 Types of Positive Punishments Interventions

Back 118

- Reprimands

- Overcorrection

- Shock/Contingent Electrical Stimulation/ECT

- Exercise/ Contingent Exercise

- Response Blocking

Front 119

What does ROSER stand for?

Back 119

- Reprimands

- Overcorrection

- Shock/Contingent Electrical Stimulation/ECT

- Exercise/ Contingent Exercise

- Response Blocking

Front 120

Overcorrection

Back 120

An individual is required to engage in effortful behavior that is directly related to the challenging behavior

Front 121

What are the 2 types of overcorection?

Back 121

Restitutional Overcorrection

Positive Practice Overcorrection

Front 122

Restitutional Overcorrection

Back 122

Repair environment to its original state before the behavior and make it a lot better on top of that

Front 123

Positive Practice Overcorrection

Back 123

Replacement behavior. The individual is required to repeatedly perform a correct form of the behavior for a certain amount of time of a certain number of times. Educative.

Front 124

Shock/Contingent Electrical Stimulation/ECT

Back 124

Shock after an individuals behavior

Front 125

Exercise/Contingent Exercise

Back 125

An individual is reacquired to perform a response not topographically related to the behavior

Front 126

Response Blocking

Back 126

Physically intervening as soon as the individual begins to emit the challenging behavior to "block" the completion of the response

Front 127

Negative Punishment

Back 127

A process that occurs when a response is followed immediately by the removal of a stimulus (or a decrease in the intensity of a stimulus) that decreases the future frequency of similar responses under similar conditions

Front 128

What are the 2 types of negative punishments?

Back 128

- Response cost

- Time out

Front 129

Response Cost

Back 129

Loss of a specific amount of reinforcement contingent on a behavior

Front 130

What are the two types of response cost methods?

Back 130

- Bonus Response Cost

- Direct Fines

Front 131

Bonus Response Cost

Back 131

When you make additional non-contingent reinforcers available to the individual and then take those away

Front 132

Direct Fines

Back 132

Direct loss of positive reinforcers

Front 133

What are the 2 types of time-outs?

Back 133

- Non-exclusionary time-out

- Exclusionary time-out

Front 134

Non-Exclusionary Time-Out

Back 134

The individual is not removed from the space; These are preferred over exclusionary time-out methods because these are less restrictive

Front 135

What are the 4 types of non-exclusionary time outs?

Back 135

- Ignoring/ Planned Ignoring

- Withdrawal of a Specific Positive Reinforcer

- Observation/Contingent Observation

- Ribbon/Time-Out Ribbon

Front 136

Ignoring/Planned Ignoring

Back 136

Social Reinforcers removed for a specific period of time

Front 137

Withdrawal of a specific positive reinforcer

Back 137

Taking something preferred away

Front 138

Observation/Contingent Observation

Back 138

The individual is repositioned in the room, so they can observe everything, but do not participate

Front 139

Ribbon/Time-Out

Back 139

Colored band placed on the individual's wrist. This because discriminated for getting reinforcement.

Ribbon on= can earn reinforcement

Ribbon off= cannot earn reinforcement

Front 140

Exclusionary Time-Out

Back 140

The individual is removed from space

Front 141

What are the 3 types of exclusionary time-outs?

Back 141

- Room/time-out room

- Partition time-out

- Hallway time-out

Front 142

Room/time-out room

Back 142

Confined space outside the individuals normal environment. Devoid of positive reinforcers. Make sure the individual is safely placed. Should be located near the time-in setting

Front 143

Partition time-out

Back 143

Individual remains in the room, but his/her view is restricted by a wall or partition

Front 144

Hallway time-out

Back 144

Individual sits in the hallway

Front 145

Positive Punishment VS. Negative Reinforcement

Back 145

Similar: Both are called "aversive control" because aversive events are associated with both

VS.

Different: Effect on behavior

Front 146

Unconditioned Punishers/ Punishment

Back 146

A stimulus change that decreases the frequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it irrespective of the organism's learning history with the stimulus; no learning history is required; Products of phylogeny. All members of species generally share the same unconditioned punishers

Front 147

Conditioned Punishers/ Punishment

Back 147

A previously neutral stimulus that now functions as a punishers; learning history required; products of ontogeny

Front 148

How do you establish new conditioned reinforcers and punishers for an individual?

Back 148

Through a pairing procedure; Pair the desired new conditioned reinforcer/punisher with an existing unconditioned or conditioned reinforcer/punisher for the individual repeatedly until the new conditioned reinforcer/punisher actually becomes a reinforcer/punisher for the individual independently

Front 149

Generalized Conditioned Punishers (or Generalized Punishers)

Back 149

A type of conditioned punisher that has been paired with many unconditioned and conditioned punishers; do NOT depend on MO for its effectiveness; Likely to be punishing at any time

Front 150

Verbal Analog Conditioning

Back 150

Verbal pairing procedure whereby previously neutral stimuli can become conditioned punishers or reinforcers for humans without direct pairing

Front 151

Extinction

Back 151

A procedure that occurs when a previously reinforced response is discontinued, so that behavior decreases in the future; No reinforcement -> behavior decreases; A maintaining reinforcer is no longer provided

Front 152

Why is extinction so hard for people to use?

Back 152

For extinction to be effective, reinforcers must be withheld all the time, not most of the time; Possible increases in other challenging behaviors; Gradual decrease in frequency and amplitude of behavior is common

Front 153

What are the 3 types of extinction?

Back 153

- Positive Reinforcement

- Automatic Reinforcement (Sensory Extinction)

- Negative Reinforcement (Escape Extinction)

Front 154

Positive Reinforcement (Extinction)

Back 154

If the function of an individual's behavior is attention, then ignoring is the correct form of extinction; If the function of an individual's behavior is tangibles, not giving the tangibles to him/her is the correct form of extinction

Front 155

Automatic Reinforcement (Extinction)

Back 155

Mask or remove the sensory consequence

Front 156

Negative Reinforcement (Extinction)

Back 156

Individual cannot escape aversive situation

Front 157

Extinction Burst

Back 157

An immediate increase in the frequency of responding when an extinction procedure is initially implemented

Front 158

Spontaneous Recovery

Back 158

A typical pattern in which the behavior that diminished during the extinction process reoccurs; The behavior reoccurs even though the behavior has NOT been reinforced; It is NOT an indication that the extinction procedure is ineffective; it is usually short-lived and followed by a decrease in behavior

Front 159

Resistance to Extinction

Back 159

- Long history of reinforcement

- Intermittent schedules of reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement

- High quality reinforcer

- Large amount of reinforcer

- Response requiring little effort

- Number of previous extinction trials. This relates to intermittent schedules and these schedules are resistant to extinction

Front 160

Operant Extinction Vs. Respondent Extinction

Back 160

Operant Extinction: Involves withholding reinforcement when the behavior occurs

VS.

Respondent Extinction: Involves the un-pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US)

Front 161

Stimulus Control

Back 161

When the rate/frequency, latency, duration, or amplitude of a response is altered in the presence of an antecedent stimulus; Stimulus control is acquired when responses are reinforced only in the presence of a specific stimulus and not in the presence of other stimuli

Front 162

What are the two factors that affect stimulus control?

Back 162

Pre-Attending Skills

Stimulus Salience

Front 163

Pre-Attending Skills

Back 163

Looking at the instructor, looking at the materials, listening to directions, and sitting quietly for short periods of time; Must be taught BEFORE stimulus control

Front 164

Stimulus Salience

Back 164

Prominence of the stimulus in a person's environment; Increased salience makes things easier to learn

Stimulus salience is affected by 2 elements:

- Masking

- Overshadowing

Front 165

Masking

Back 165

Even though a stimulus has acquired stimulus control over a behavior, a competing stimulus can block the evocative function of that stimulus; the behavior is already in the individual's repertoire, but is MASKED by other elements

Front 166

Overshadowing

Back 166

The presence of one stimulus condition interferes with the acquisition of stimulus control by another stimulus; the individual cannot even learn the behavior because the learning is OVERSHADOWED by another element

Front 167

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

Back 167

A stimulus in the presence of which responses of some type have been reinforced and in the absence of which the same type of responses have occurred and not been reinforced in the past

Front 168

Stimulus Delta

Back 168

A stimulus in the presence of which a given behavior has NOT produced reinforcement in the past; SDelta is not always zero reinforcement- it can be lesser quality or amount of reinforcement than the SD

Front 169

Repertoire-Altering Effect

Back 169

When SD's and MO's are combined

They share two things

- Both occur BEFORE the behavior

- Both have evocative functions

Front 170

SD VS. MO

Back 170

MO: Something that changes the value of a stimulus as a reinforcer; related to the differential reinforcing effectiveness of an environmental event

VS.

SD: A response in the presence of an SD must produce more reinforcement than it does in its absence. The SD has to have the promise of the reinforcer based on the differential reinforcement history of that individual, but an MO is going to produce the response regardless of reinforcement history

Front 171

Stimulus Generalization

Back 171

When an antecedent stimulus has a history of evoking a response that has been reinforced in its presence, the same type of behavior tends to be evoked by stimuli that share similar physical properties with the controlling antecedent stimulus

Front 172

Stimulus Discrimination

Back 172

Occurs when new stimuli do NOT evoke the same response as the controlling stimulus

Front 173

Are stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination relative relations?

Back 173

Yes

Stimulus Generalization = loose degree of stimulus control

Stimulus Discrimination = tight degree of stimulus control

Front 174

Stimulus Discrimination Training

Back 174

A procedure in which responses are reinforced in the presence of one stimulus condition (the SD) but NOT in the presence of the other (SDelta)

Front 175

Generalization Gradient

Back 175

A GRAPH of the extent to which behavior that has been reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus condition is emitted in the presence of other stimuli; The gradient shows relative degree of stimulus generalization and stimulus control

Front 176

When your looking at the generalization gradient graph what does a fat slope and an increasing slope mean?

Back 176

Fat Slope = Little stimulus control

Increasing Slope = Increasing stimulus control

Front 177

Concept

Back 177

Concept is NOT mentalism; it is a product of both stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination; Stimulus generalization within a stimulus class and stimulus discrimination between stimulus classes needed to form a concept; a concept requires an individual being able to discriminate between what is included in a stimulus class and what is excluded from that same stimulus class

Front 178

How do we teach concepts?

Back 178

- Discrimination training is FUNDAMENTAL to teaching conceptual behavior

- Exemplars of what the concept is and what the concept is not is needed

Front 179

Simple Discrimination

Back 179

An antecedent evokes or abates the behavior; a 3 term contingency is involved: a discriminative stimulus -> response -> consequence

Front 180

Matching-to-sample

Back 180

Selecting a comparison stimulus corresponding to a sample stimulus

- you present the sample stimulus

- you present other comparison stimuli to the individual

- when the individual picks the picture of baby you reinforce

- when the individual picks the cat (incorrect stimulus) you do not reinforce

Front 181

What are the 2 types of match-to-sample procedures?

Back 181

Identity Matching-to-Sample

Symbolic Matching-to-Sample

Front 182

Identity Matching-to-Sample

Back 182

When the sample and comparison stimuli are physically identical

Front 183

Symbolic Matching-to-Sample

Back 183

Matching-to-sample in which the relation between the sample and comparison stimuli is arbitrary

Front 184

Stimulus Equivalence

Back 184

The emergence of accurate responding to untrained and non-reinforced stimulus-stimulus conditions. Responses are reinforced in the presence of one stimulus condition, the SD, but not in the presence of the other stimulus, the SDelta

Front 185

What are the 3 parts of stimulus equivalence?

Back 185

Reflexivity

Symmetry

Transitivity

Front 186

Reflexivity

Back 186

Simple non-symbolic matching-to-sample; the behavior of matching the 2 identical stimuli are under reflexive stimulus control

Front 187

Symmetry

Back 187

Occurs with reversibility of the sample stimulus and the comparison stimulus; the stimulus control of stimuli A and B are said to be symmetrical

Front 188

Transitivity

Back 188

The final and critical test for stimulus equivalence; Requires demonstration of 3 untrained stimulus-stimulus sequences

- A=B relation

- B=C relation

- A=C relation

Front 189

Equivalence Class

Back 189

Results from stimulus equivalence training, the symbolic matching-to-sample; a set of arbitrary stimuli that need not to have common physical properties; an equivalence class is formed if all stimuli in that set are reflexive, symmetrical, and transitive with each other

Front 190

Rule-Governed Behavior

Back 190

A verbal description of a behavioral contingency; behavior controlled by a rule; enables human behavior to come under the indirect control of temporally remote or improbable but potentially significant consequences. Often used in contrast to contingency-shaped behavior, a term used to indicate behavior selected and maintained by controlled, temporally close consequences

Front 191

Contingency-Shaped Behavior

Back 191

When a behavior is directly controlled by a contingency, NOT rules.

Front 192

Is the behavior contingency-shaped or the result of rules?

Back 192

5 ways to know if a behavior is the result of a rule (rather than reinforcement)

- there is not an immediate consequence for the response

- Response-Consequence delay > (greater) than 60 seconds

- We see the behavior change without reinforcement

- A large increase in the frequency of the behavior occurs following one instance of reinforcement

- No consequence for the behavior exists (including no automatic reinforcement) but the rule exists

Front 193

Motivating Operation (MO)

Back 193

Describes an environmental variable that

- alters (increases or decreases) the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus

- alters (increases or decreases) the current frequency of all behavior that has been reinforced by that stimulus

Front 194

What are the 2 types of MO's?

Back 194

Establishing operation

Abolishing operation

Front 195

Establishing Operation

Back 195

A type of MO that INCREASES the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer and makes something MORE desirable to you

2 Types:

- Value-Altering Effect

- Behavior-Altering Effect

Front 196

Value-Altering Effect (in Establishing Operation)

Back 196

An increase in the current reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus; makes that thing you want super VALUABLE in the moment

Front 197

Behavior-Altering Effect (in Establishing Operation)

Back 197

An increase in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is altered in effectiveness by the same MO; Makes your BEHAVIOR ALTER so that you go get that thing you want in the moment

Front 198

Abolishing Operation

Back 198

An MO that DECREASES the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer; Makes something LESS desirable to you

2 types:

- Value-Altering Effect

- Behavior-Altering Effect

Front 199

Value-Altering Effect (in Abolishing Operation)

Back 199

A decrease in the current reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus; makes the thing you want LESS valuable in the moment

Front 200

Behavior-Altering Effect (in Abolishing Operation)

Back 200

A decrease in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is altered in effectiveness by the same MO; Makes your BEHAVIOR ALTER in that you do not try to go get that thing you want in the moment

Front 201

Function-Altering Effects

Back 201

Refers to how the future behavior of a person changes because of the MO they are experiencing in the moment. Consequent variables that alter the future frequency of whatever behavior immediately preceded those consequences. The MO the person experiences in the moment functions as an SP to cause a decrease in the future frequency of the particular type of behavior that immediately preceded that instance of whatever discomfort the person is experiencing

Front 202

What is the difference between behavior-altering effects and function-altering effects of an MO?

Back 202

Behavior-Altering Effects:

- CURRENT MOMENT

- Changes a person's behavior in the current moment

- MOs and SDs are antecedent variables that have behavior altering effects. These can evoke or abate responses; they do not alter consequences at all

Function-Altering Effects:

- FUTURE

- Changes a person's behavior in the future

- Consequent variables: reinforcers, punishers, extinction

- Consequent variables alter the future frequency of whatever behavior immediately preceded them

Front 203

Unconditoned Motivating Operations (UMOs)

Back 203

For all organisms, there are events, operations, and stimulus conditions with value-altering motivating effects that are UNLEARNED

Front 204

What are the 9 main unconditioned motivating operations for humans?

Back 204

- Food deprivation

- Water deprivation

- Sleep deprivation

- Activity deprivation

- Oxygen deprivation

- Sex deprivation

- Becoming too warm

- Becoming too cold

- Increase in pain

Front 205

Conditioned Motivating Operations (CMOs)

Back 205

A LEARNED relation between the nature and value of an antecedent stimulus and the nature of a response

Front 206

Motivating Stimuli and 3 sub-types of MOs

Back 206

Contingencies that produce an evocative relation similar to that of an MO: When a response becomes important, but... the response cannot occur UNLESS some stimulus change enables it

Front 207

Motivating Stimulus

Back 207

is a stimulus that must be present to allow the person to engage in the behavior that is primed for reinforcement. Its absence evokes seeking out that stimulus.

Front 208

Surrogate MO

Back 208

A stimulus that has acquired its effectiveness by accompanying some other MO and has come to have the same value-altering and behavior-altering effects as the MO that it has accompanied. Alters the value of consequences that are under the control of an MO with which it has been paired. A pairing process needs to take place here with another MO.

Front 209

Reflexive MO

Back 209

A condition or object that acquires its effectiveness as an MO by PRECEDING a situation that either is worsening or is improving. Since the condition or object comes before the aversive event, escape or avoidance would now be highly reinforcing to the person. They signal to us that aversive events may be occurring soon!

Front 210

Transitive MO

Back 210

An environmental variable that establishes (or abolishes) the reinforcing effectiveness of another stimulus and thereby evokes (or abates) the behavior that has been reinforced by that other stimulus. UMO effects (those of food deprivation) transfer to the conditional reinforcers (eating utensils) and when they do, they are called TRANSITIVE CONDITIONAL MOs. This is the same thing as the Motivating Simulus. YOU CANNOT ACCESS TO THE STIMULUS YOU WANT UNTIL YOU SOLVE THE PROBLEM (locked fridge)

Front 211

Discrimination VS. Generalization

Back 211

Discrimination: Occurs when a limited spectrum of stimuli occasion a response. Narrow stimulus control.

VS.

Generalization: Occurs when a large spectrum of stimuli occasion certain responses. Generalization is a critical element as to why the human species has survived and thrived

Front 212

What are the 2 types of generalization?

Back 212

Stimulus Generalization

Response Generalization

Front 213

Stimulus Generalization

Back 213

Responding to antecedent stimuli sharing certain aspects of the original SD; a broadening of the spectrum of stimuli that occasion certain responses. The individual responds to something in the same way that resembles the original thing from which they learned.

Front 214

How do you program for stimulus generalization?

Back 214

- Sometimes you may want to teach a person stimulus generalization skills they may be lacking

- You want the person to respond in the same way to similar, but not identical stimuli

Front 215

Over Generalization

Back 215

Emitting a response appropriate to some contexts in an inappropriate context. An inappropriate generalization.

Front 216

Response Generalization

Back 216

How we are able to shape new behavior. The extent to which an individual exhibits novice responses that are functionally equivalent to the trained target response. The effects of intervention are expanded from a targeted response to a similar non-targeted behavior.

Front 217

How do I know if the answer is response or stimulus generalization?

Back 217

By asking if the form of the response/ behavior change in the example

Front 218

Did the form of the response/ behavior change in the example?

Back 218

Yes = Response Generalization/ Induction

No = Stimulus Generalization

Front 219

How do you plan for generalization?

Back 219

- Select target behaviors that will meet with natural contingencies of reinforcement

- Specify all desired variations of the behavior and the situations in which it should (and should not) occur after instruction ended

Front 220

Select target behaviors that will meet with natural contingencies of reinforcement

Back 220

- Behavior generalization must be functional for the individual

- Follow the relevance-of-behavior rule

Front 221

Relevance-of-Behavior Rule

Back 221

Only choose behaviors that generate reinforcers after intervention ceases

Front 222

What are the 2 types of contingencies?

Back 222

- Naturally Existing Contingency

- Contrived Contingency

Front 223

Naturally Existing Contingency

Back 223

Any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) that operates independent of your efforts in the generalization setting

Front 224

Contrived Contingency

Back 224

Any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) designed by you to achieve acquisition, maintenance, and/or generalization of a behavior change

Front 225

Specify All Desired Variations of the Behavior and the Situations in Which it Should (and Should Not) Occur After Instruction Ended

Back 225

- List all behaviors that need to be changed

- List all situations in which the behavior should/ should not occur

- Do this in the beginning of your PLANNING stage

Front 226

7 Strategies to Promote Generalization

Back 226

1. Common Stimuli (Program Common Stimuli)

2. Loosely Train (Train Loosely)

3. Exemplars

4. Mediation

5. Indiscriminable Contingency

6. Negative Teaching Examples

7. General Case Analysis

Front 227

Common Stimuli (Program Common Stimuli)

Back 227

- The likelihood that the correct response will be occasioned in the generalization setting is increased if there is a lot of similarity between the instruction setting and generalization setting

- The process of programming common stimuli involves ensuring the same SDs exist in both the instructional and generalization setting

Front 228

Loosely Train (Train Loosely)

Back 228

- Expanding heterogeneity of SDs

- Noncritical elements of the teaching setting are altered in arbitrary ways

- This decreases the likelihood that the individual too narrowly discriminates some noncritical stimulus and that noncritical stimulus acquires exclusive control over the target response

Methods to train loosely: teach upstairs in the home one day and downstairs a different day, teach while wearing your hair in a ponytail one day and wearing your hair down a different day, etc.

Front 229

Exemplars (teach sufficient examples; multiple exemplar training)

Back 229

- The more examples utilized when teaching, the better.

- Provide the individual opportunities to respond correctly to multiple examples of antecedent stimuli

- Provide the individual with multiple response examples

Front 230

Mediation

Back 230

-Instruct others who will help maintain and generalize newly acquired behaviors

- It is your ethical responsibility to collaborate with others to maintain the client's progress after your services terminate

- Cooperating with other professionals in order to serve your clients effectively and appropriately is outlined in the professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts

Front 231

Indiscriminable Contingencies

Back 231

A contingency in which an individual is NOT able to DISCRIMINATE when his/her responses will be reinforced, thus, behaviors continue at a high rate because he/she does not known when his/her next response will produce reinforcement. Making the contingencies unclear in the generalization setting

Front 232

Negative Teaching Examples

Back 232

Instructing individuals regarding settings, times, and conditions in which is it NOT appropriate to display a certain behavior; "Don't do it" exemplars strengthen discrimination skills

Front 233

General Case Analysis

Back 233

Ensuring that you are teaching all the different stimulus variations and response variations the individual may encounter in the generalization, post-intervention environment; general case strategy helps the individual to learn the similarities of stimuli within a stimulus class and the differences of stimuli within that same stimulus class

Front 234

Terminating Successful Interventions

Back 234

- One must systematically terminate successful interventions

- One should assess how intricate the intervention is, how quickly did the intervention produce the desired change for the individual, and the availability of natural contingencies of reinforcement for the newly acquired skill

- From the beginning, attempt to reduce the need to generalize

- Prior to, during, and following intervention, probe for generalization

- Mediators should have responsibility in the generalization process

Front 235

Maintenance

Back 235

- Following the removal of an intervention, the extent to which a particular response remains in the individual's repertoire over time

- A history of intermittent reinforcement tends to promote persistence under extinction. Meaning, when the target behavior is no longer yielding contingent reinforcement, the behavior will still maintain due to its intermittent reinforcement

Front 236

How do you program for maintenance?

Back 236

- Use intermittent/ variable reinforcement with your client because this means behavior

- Think IV and VR schedules of reinforcement

Front 237

Verbal Behavior

Back 237

Skinner created verbal behavior

Book "verbal Behavior" published in 1957

Front 238

Private Events

Back 238

- Events taking place inside the skin

- Thoughts and feelings

- Private events are behavior too!

- Private events are accessible only to one individual, not to 2 or more individuals

Front 239

Technical Definition of Verbal Behavior

Back 239

- Behavior that is reinforced through the mediation of another person's behavior

- Communication that helps individuals get what they desire and avoid what is undesirable to them

- Any response form can be verbal

- Verbal behavior include vocal and non-vocal behaviors

- Involves social interaction between the speaker and listener

Front 240

Speaker

Back 240

Gains access to reinforcement and controls their environment though the behavior of the listener. Skinner's verbal behavior is mainly concerned with the behavior of the speaker

Front 241

Listener

Back 241

Must learn how to reinforce the speaker's verbal behavior (respond to words and interact with the speaker)

Front 242

Form VS. Function of Verbal Behavior/ Language

Back 242

Form: Formal properties of language involve the topography

VS.

Function: Effects of the response

Front 243

Verbal Operant

Back 243

The unit of analysis in verbal behavior

MO/ SD -> Response -> Consequence

Front 244

Skinner's 6 Types of Elementary Verbal Operants

Back 244

Echoic

Mand

Intraverbal

Tact

Textual

Transcription

Front 245

What is the acronym for the 6 types of verbal operants?

Back 245

EMITTT

Front 246

Echoic

Back 246

A type of verbal operant that occurs when the speaker repeats the verbal behavior of another speaker. Repeating/ Echoing/ Verbally Imitating. The echoic operant is controlled by the Verbal Discriminative Stimulus. This means whatever the speaker said controls what the listener is going to say. Speaker says, "Eho" then the listener says, "Echo". The ability to echo is essential for identifying objects and actions. Echoic behavior produces Generalized Conditioned Reinforcement (GCSR). The verbal SD have 2 things in common with the response:

- Point-to-point correspondence

- Formal similarity

Front 247

Point-to-Point Correspondence

Back 247

When the beginning, middle, and end of the verbal stimulus match the beginning, middle, and end of the response

Front 248

Formal Similarity

Back 248

When the controlling antecedent stimulus and the response share the same sense mode and physically look exactly the same

Front 249

Echoic Training

Back 249

Involves bringing verbal responses under the functional control of verbal SDs that have point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the response.

- Goal is to enable the speaker to repeat the teacher's sounds, generally the end goal is to transfer the response form to other, more advanced verbal operants

Front 250

Mand

Back 250

- A type of verbal operant in which the speaker asks for what he/she needs or wants

- Wants Controlled by MOs (not SDs)

- Mands are the first verbal operants acquired by humans

Front 251

Mand Training

Back 251

- Bringing verbal responses under the functional control of MOs

- First verbal operant to teach a person!

- Because it is the first one we acquire as human being

- When a person learns to mand, he/she will learn the amazing power of language and continue language development in the future!

Front 252

Where to Start Mand Training?

Back 252

- Finds out what motivates a person, an MO needs to be in effect at the time of training

- When is that motivating strong?

- Can you capture or contrive the motivation to teach a mand?

- Make a list of potential motivators and the related reinforcers

- Select the first few words to teach

Front 253

For beginning mands, choose words:

Back 253

- That are related to strong motivation for each item you teach your client

- You can control access to

- That can be available for a short period of time initially

- That are easy to deliver and/or remove

- That are consistently strong

- The client prefers and not what the adult prefers

- Involving a response form already in the client's repertoire

Front 254

Higher-level mands to teach/ Complex mands

Back 254

- Manding for attention

- Manding people do things for you

- Manding for information

- Using mands with adjectives/ prepositions

- Increase the length of mands

Front 255

What are the two types of mands?

Back 255

Superstitious Mand

Magical Mand

Front 256

Superstitious Mand

Back 256

An extended mand in which reinforcement sometime occurs incidentally

Front 257

Magical Mand

Back 257

- An extended mand in which the reinforcement has NEVER occurred in the past

- WISHING

Front 258

Intraverbal

Back 258

- Verbal operant in which the speaker deferentially responds to other people

- ANSWERING A QUESTION

- The intraverbal operant occurs when a VERBAL DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS evokes a verbal response that does NOT have point-to-point correspondence with the verbal stimulus

- Allows a person to talk about and think about things that are not physically present

-The intraverbal produces Generalized Conditioned Reinforcement (GCR)

Front 259

Intraverbal Training

Back 259

Involves bringing verbal responses under the functional control of verbal SDs that lack point-to-point correspondence with the response

Front 260

Intraverbal Prerequisites

Back 260

The individual has acquired 50 mands and tacts

Front 261

How to teach intraverbal behavior

Back 261

- By using prompting, fading, and chaining

- Focus on what interests the learner and manipulate the EOs

- Teach in the natural environment as much as possible

- Continue teaching new mands and tacts as you teach intraverbals

Front 262

For Beginning Intraverbals

Back 262

- Begin with fill in the blank activities by using favorite songs or characters

- Teaching the client to give his/ her name, gender, etc.

- Use object and animal sounds

- Use common associations

- WH questions

Front 263

Intraverbals should be taught systematically

Back 263

- When teaching intraverbals, doing so in the natural environment fosters generalization

- Short sessions (1-15 min)

- Training on the floor, at a table, playground, etc.

Front 264

Tact

Back 264

- Tact is a type of verbal operant in which the speaker names things and actions that the speaker has direct contact with through any of the sense modes

- Labeling the environment

- Verbal response in the presence of the thing tacted

- Tact are controlled by a NONVERBAL DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS

- Produces GENERALIZED CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT (GCSR)

Front 265

Tact Training

Back 265

Involves bringing verbal responses under the functional control of nonverbal SDs

Front 266

Tact Prerequisites

Back 266

- Echoics

- Some labeling of vocabulary

- 5-10 mands that occur without echoic prompts

Front 267

How to Teach Tacts

Back 267

Teaching tacts is similar to teaching mands but the form of verbal stimuli changes from, "what do you want?" to "what is that?" or "what do you see?"

Front 268

Pure Tacts

Back 268

Your ultimate goal is that a person can tact without anything in place but the non-verbal SD

Front 269

For beginning tacts, choose words

Back 269

- That were used during mand training

- That are easy to present and manage during teaching sessions

Front 270

Tacts should be taught systematically

Back 270

1. Teach with mand component

2. Teach without mand component

Front 271

Tact Extensions

Back 271

- There is not one name for one thing; there are many ways to describe the same thing

- A new stimulus being similar to another known stimulus may evoke a response like the original stimulus

- The distinction is based on the degree to which a novel stimulus shares features with the original stimulus

Front 272

What are the 4 types of tact extensions

Back 272

1. Solistic Extension

2. Metaphorical Extension

3. Metonymical Extension

4. Generic Extension

Front 273

Solistic Extension

Back 273

- Poor use of language

- Substandard verbal behavior; slangs

Front 274

Metaphorical Extension

Back 274

- Metaphors

- The novel stimulus shares some but not all of the features associated with the original stimulus

Front 275

Metonymical Extension

Back 275

Verbal responses to novel stimuli that share NONE of the relevant features of the original stimulus, but some irrelevant but related feature has acquired stimulus control

Front 276

Generic Extension

Back 276

- The novel stimulus shares all of the relevant or defining features of the original stimulus

- This is the same thing as stimulus generalization

Front 277

Textual

Back 277

- Reading, without any implications that the reader understands what is being read

- Reading written words

- Actually understanding what one is reading involves other verbal and non-verbal operants, such as intraverbal behavior and receptive language

- The textual operant occurs when a VERBAL DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS has point-to-point correspondence, but no formal similarity between the stimulus and the response

- Like all verbal operants except the mand, the textual produces GENERALIZED CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT (GCSR)

Front 278

Transcription

Back 278

- Writing and spelling words spoken to you

- TAKING DICTATION

- The transcription operant occurs when a spoken VERBAL DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS controls a written, typed, or finger-spelled response

- There is a point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response product, but no formal similarity

Front 279

DUPLIC and CODIC

Back 279

- More recent additions regarding Skinner's elementary verbal operants

- Jack Michcael (1982 article) created these 2 new categories

Front 280

CODIC

Back 280

3 defining features

1. Verbal SD

2. Point-to-point correspondence

3. No formal similarity

Front 281

What are Skinner's Elementary Verbal Operants that are Duplics?

Back 281

- Echoic: with echoic, the stimulus is auditory

Why is this a duplic?

- An echoic is controlled by a verbal SD

- An echoic has formal similarity

- Imitating someone else's signs

Why is this a duplic?

- The person's signs are the verbal SDs

- There is formal similarity here in that the signs the person imitates are in the same sense mode as the other person presenting the signs

Front 282

Listener Training

Back 282

- Skinner's verbal behavior mainly focuses on speaker behavior, NOT listener behavior because what is most often described as listener behavior is more correctly classified as speaker behavior

- Often the speaker and listener reside in the same skin

- A verbal episode requires a speaker and listener

- The role of the listener and what you need to teach them to do- the listener plays the role as a mediator of reinforcement for the speaker's behavior the listener also acts as an SD for the speaker's behavior

Front 283

Autoclitic

Back 283

- Verbal behavior about one's own verbal behavior

- A secondary verbal operant in which some aspect of a speaker's own verbal behavior function as an SD or an MO for additional speaker verbal behavior

- A form of verbal behavior that modifies other forms of verbal behavior

- Effects are very RAPID and usually occur in the emission of a SINGLE SENTENCE composed of 2 levels of responding

Front 284

Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 284

- A rule that describes a contingency of reinforcement

- The environmental arrangements that determine conditions by which behaviors will be reinforced

Front 285

Continuous Reinforcement (CRF)

Back 285

- Provides reinforcement for every occurrence of the target behavior

- Utilized for strengthening novel behaviors when teaching is first initiated for a new skill that is being acquired

Front 286

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (INT)

Back 286

- Some, but not all, occurrences of the behavior are reinforced

- Used for maintaining behaviors that have already been established

- Helps to fade from artificial to natural reinforcement

Front 287

What are the 4 basic Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement?

Back 287

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Variable Ratio

Front 288

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Back 288

- Fixed = Constant, set criteria

- Ratio = A certain number of occurrences of the behavior have to occur before 1 response produces reinforcement

Front 289

Pattern of Responding Produced by FR Schedules

Back 289

- Individual completes required responses with little hesitation

- Post-reinforcement pause follows reinforcement

- The size of the ratio influences the duration of the post-reinforcement pause

- Large Ratio = Long Pauses

- Short Ratio = Short Pauses

Front 290

Post-Reinforcement Pause

Back 290

- When the individual does not respond for certain time following reinforcement

Front 291

Rate of Response Produced by FR Schedules

Back 291

- FR schedules often produce high rate of response because quick responding produces a faster rate of reinforcement

- The larger the ratio requirement, the higher the rate of response

Front 292

Variable Ratio (VR)

Back 292

The strongest basic schedule of intermittent reinforcement

- Variable = changing, variable criteria; average; mean of responses

- Ratio = A number of occurrences of the target behavior have to occur before 1 response produces reinforcement

Front 293

Pattern of Responding Produced by VR Schedules

Back 293

- Produce consistent, steady rates of response

- Do NOT produce a post-reinforcement pause. Responding remains steady because the next response may produce reinforcement

Front 294

Rate of Response Produced by VR Schedules

Back 294

- Fast rate of response

- The larger the ratio requirement, the faster the rate of response

Front 295

Fixed Interval

Back 295

One of the BASIC schedules of intermittent schedules of reinforcement

- Fixed = Constant, set criteria

- Interval = Specific amount of time elapses before a single correct response produces reinforcement

Front 296

Patterns of Responding Produced by FI Scheudles

Back 296

- Post-reinforcement pause also evident in this schedule, but only during the early part of the interval

- At the end of the interval, there is a FI SCALLOP, which is a gradually accelerating rate of response toward the end of the interval. Called this because of the rounded curves in the graph and it resembles scallops

Front 297

Rate of Response Produced by FI Schedules

Back 297

- Slow-to-moderate

- The larger the fixed interval requirement, the longer the post-reinforcement pause

Front 298

Variable Interval

Back 298

- One of the BASIC schedules of intermittent reinforcement

- Variable = Changing, variable criteria; AVERAGE; MEAN of responses

- Interval = Specific amount of time elapses before a single correct response produces reinforcement

Front 299

Pattern of Responding Produced by VI Schedules

Back 299

- Constant, stable rate of response

- Few hesitations between responses

Front 300

Rate of Response Produced by VI Schedules

Back 300

- Low-to-moderate rate of response

- The larger the average interval, the lower the overall rate of response

Front 301

Fixed Ratio VS. Fixed Interval

Back 301

- Both produce post-reinforcement pauses

- Variable schedules do NOT PRODUCE POST-REINFORCEMENT

Front 302

Thinning Intermittent Reinforcement (INT)

Back 302

- Gradually increasing the response ratio or the duration of the time interval

Front 303

Ratio Strain

Back 303

- A result of ABRUPT increases in ratio requirements when moving from denser to thinner reinforcement schedules

- Common behavioral characteristics are avoidance, aggression, etc.

Front 304

How Can Ration Strain be Reduced?

Back 304

When you see ratio strain, you should reduce the ratio requirements

Front 305

Limited Hold

Back 305

- A restriction placed on an interval schedule requiring that to be eligible for reinforcement, the primed response must occur within a specified span of time following that interval

- A LH can be imposed on any type of schedule

- To speed up the response rate of your client, use an LH

Front 306

3 Variations of Basic Intermittent (INT) Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 306

- Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Responding (DRH)

- Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates of Responding (DRD)

- Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL)

Front 307

Variations of Basic Intermittent (INT) Schedules of differential reinforcement of rates of responding

Back 307

- Use when the challenging behavior has to do with rates of response- Differential reinforcement helps with this problem

- It is a variation of RATIO schedules, because reinforcement is contingent upon behaviors occurring at higher or lower rates than a specified criterion

Front 308

Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Responding (DRH)

Back 308

- A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for emitting behaviors that are at or above a pre-established rate

- Helps to increase to INCREASE BEHAVIOR that the individual displays too infrequently

Front 309

Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates of Responding (DRO)

Back 309

- A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement when the number of responses in a specified time period is less than, or equal to, a prescribed limit

- Helps to DECREASE BEHAVIOR that the individual displays too frequently, but NOT TO ELIMINATE IT ENTIRELY

Front 310

Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL)

Back 310

- A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement only if the behavior occurs following a specific period of time during which it did not occur since the last time it occurred

- An INTER-RESPONSE TIME (IRT) identifies the duration of time that occurs between 2 responses

- DRL helps to DECREASE BEHAVIOR that the individual displays too frequently, but NOT TO ELIMINATE IT ENTIRELY

Front 311

IRT and Rate of Response are functionally related

Back 311

- The longer the IRT, the lower the overall rate of responding

- The shorter the IRT, the higher the overall rate or responding

- Thus, by increasing the IRT, you are lowering the rate of responding. That is what the DRL is all about

Front 312

Progressive Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 312

- Variation on basic INT schedules of reinforcement

- Systematically thins each successive reinforcement opportunity independent of the participant's behavior

- There is a direct relation between how hard an organism will work for access to an object, as indexed by the largest ratio completed under a progressive schedule (which is the breaking point) and the potency of the reinforcer

Front 313

Using Progressive Schedules of Reinforcer Assessment

Back 313

An assessment procedure for identifying reinforcers that will maintain treatment effects across increasing schedule requirements. During the session, progressive schedules are typically thinned to the "breaking point," when the participant stops responding. Comparing the breaking point corresponding number of responses associated with each reinforcer can identify relative reinforcement effects

Front 314

Using Progressive Schedules for Intervention

Back 314

- Systematically increasing the requirements for reinforcement

- May be used to measure what is commonly referred to as the strength, potency, or effectiveness of scheduled reinforcers

Front 315

Compound Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 315

Combination of:

- Continuous reinforcement (CRF)

- 4 intermittent schedules of reinforcement (FR, VR, FI, VI)

- Differential reinforcement of various rates of responding (DRH, DRD, DRL)

- Extinction (EXT)

Front 316

7 Compound Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 316

1. Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement (conc)

2. Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement (mult)

3. Chained Schedules of Reinforcement (chain)

4. Mixed Schedules of Reinforcement (mix)

5. Tandem Schedules of Reinforcement (tand)

6. Alternative Schedules of Reinforcement (alt)

7. Conjunctive Schedules of Reinforcement (conj)

Front 317

Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 317

- Occurs when:

- 2 or more contingencies of reinforcement

- operate independently and simultaneously

- for 2 or more behaviors

- We make choices among concurrently available events every day

- Choice Making

- Matching law is part of this schedule

Front 318

Matching Law

Back 318

A description of a phenomenon according to which organisms MATCH their responses according to the proportion of payoff during CHOICE situations

Front 319

Matching Law States

Back 319

Given 2 concurrently available response alternatives, individuals will distribute their behavior in the same proportion that reinforcers are distributed among those alternatives

Front 320

Translation of Matching Law

Back 320

Given 2 concurrently available behaviors, we will choose to engage in the behavior that has the highest rate or reinforcement

Front 321

Formula of Matching Law

Back 321

B1 = R1

B1 + B2 R1 + R2

B = Rate of behaviors/responses at either alternative B1 and B2

R = Rate of reinforcement for B1 and B2

Front 322

Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 322

- Presents 2 or more basic schedules of reinforcement in an alternating, usually random, sequence for only 1 or more behaviors

- The basic schedules within the multiple within the multiple schedule occur successively and independently

- An SD is correlated with each basic schedule and is present as long as the schedule is in effect

Front 323

Chained Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 323

Has 2 or more basic schedule requirements that occur successively and has an SD correlated with each independent schedule with 1 or more behaviors

Front 324

3 Important Elements of a Chained Schedule of Reinforcement

Back 324

1. Basic schedules occur in a specific order (not in a random order as in multiple schedules)

2. The behavior may be the same for all elements of the chain or different behaviors may be required for different elements in the chain

3. Conditioned reinforcement for the 1st behavior in the chain is the presentation of the 2nd element and so on

Front 325

Mixed Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 325

- Identical to multiple schedules, except the mixed schedule has NO SD correlated with the independent schedules

- NOTE: The only difference between the mixed and multiple schedule is the presentation of the SDs. It is present in the multiple, but not present in the mixed

Front 326

Tandem Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 326

- Similar to the chained schedule does not use an SD

- Note: The only difference between the tandem and chained schedule is the presentation of the SDs. It is present in the chained, but not present in the tandem

Front 327

Alternative Schedules of Reinforcement

Back 327

Advantages:

- Clear demonstration of variables that relate to problem behavior

- Standard to which all other forms of FBA are evaluated

- Enables development of effective reinforcement-based treatment

Disadvantages:

- May temporarily strengthen the problem behavior

- May result in the behavior acquiring new functions

- Acceptability is low

- Difficult to use for serious, low frequency behaviors

- If conducted in contrived settings, may not identify idiosyncratic variables related to problem behaviors

- Requires time, effort, and professional expertise

Front 328

Advantages and Disadvantages of Functional Analysis

Back 328

Provides reinforcement when the completion of the response requirements for BOTH a ratio and interval schedule have been met. Both schedule

Front 329

Adjunctive Behaviors

Back 329

- Behaviors that are brought about by schedules of reinforcement during times when reinforcement is unlikely to be delivered

- Time-filling or interim behaviors

Front 330

Schedules of Punishment

Back 330

- All of the information provided above on how much to schedule reinforcement also relates to how to schedule punishment

- NOTE: this is the EXACT SAME thing that happens with reinforcement

Front 331

Why should you recommend reinforcement rather than punishment?

Back 331

If punishment procedures are necessary, you always include reinforcement procedures for alternative behavior in the program and you should always recommend the least restrictive procedures likely to be effective, as outlined in the Professional & Ethical Compliance Code for the Behavior Analysts

Front 332

4 Phases of Intervention

Back 332

1. Assessment

2. Planning

3. Implementation

4. Evaluation

Front 333

What is the acronym for the 4 phases of intervention?

Back 333

A PIE

Front 334

Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)

Back 334

- A systematic method for obtaining information about the FUNCTION challenging behaviors serve for an individual

- Allows us to make empirically-based hypotheses for WHY behaviors occur

- Involves a variety of methods including direct observations, interviews, checklists, and tests to identify targets for behavior change

- Discovers resources, assets, significant others, competing contingencies, maintenance and generalization factors, and potential reinforcers and/or punishers that may be included in intervention plans

Front 335

Purpose of Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)

Back 335

- Identifies and defines targets for behavior change

- Guides us to create effective and positive interventions

Front 336

How do you ethically prepare for an FBA?

Back 336

- You have to choose the RIGHT BEHAVIORS for assessment, so you need to know what is SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT and be able to prioritize behaviors

- You also need to be skilled at conducting assessments

- You should accept as clients only those individuals or entities whose behavior problems or requested service are commensurate with your education, training, and experience, as outlined in the Professional and Ehtical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts

Front 337

What is the shape of the FBA?

Back 337

FUNNEL because it has a broad scope that narrows focus as you conduct the assessment process

Front 338

What are the 5 phases of the FBA?

Back 338

1. Screening and general deposition

2. Defining and quantifying problems or desired achievement criteria

3. Pinpointing target behaviors to be treated

4. Monitoring progress

5. Following-up

Front 339

What are the pre-assessment considerations for the functional behavioral assessment?

Back 339

- Before you conduct an assessment, you must ask this critical questions:

- who has the authority, permission, resources, and skills to complete an assessment and intervene with the behavior? If do not have any one of these answers, you cannot do the assessment

- you should obtain the client's or client-surrogate's approval in writing of the behavior assessment procedures before implementing them, as outlined in the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts

Front 340

Indirect VS. Direct Assessment Measures (FBA)

Back 340

Indirect Measures:

- Data obtained from recollections, reconstructions, or subjective ratings of events

- Interviews

- Checklists

VS.

Direct Measures:

- Provide information about a person's behavior as it occurs

- Preferred choice over indirect measures

- Tests

- Direct Observations

Front 341

When Using Indirect Measures in the FBA watch out because:

Back 341

- Are not as reliable as direct descriptive methods

- Should only be used as a supplement to other FBA methods

- Starts the hypotheses developmental process

Front 342

4 ways to acquire information for the FBA

Back 342

1. Checklists (behavior checklist)

2. Observation (direct observation)

3. Interviews (structured behavioral interviews)

4. Tests (standardized tests)

Front 343

What is the acronym for the 4 ways to acquire information for the FBA?

Back 343

COIT:

Checklists (behavior checklist)

Observation (direct observation)

Interviews (structured behavioral interviews)

Tests (standardized tests)

Front 344

Checklists (Behavior Checklists) in the FBA

Back 344

- Likert Scales

- Alone or with interview and rating scales

- Asks about antecedents and consequences of the target behaviors

Front 345

Observation (Direct Observation) in the FBA

Back 345

- Direct and repeated in the natural environment

- Identifies potential target behaviors

- Preferred method!

Front 346

Anecdotal observation (ABC Recording) in the FBA

Back 346

Basic form of direct observation

- Temporally sequenced description of behavior patterns

- Requires total attention of observer for at least 20-30 minutes continuously

- Not good options for classroom teacher because they have other things to do and cannot commit full attention to data

- Do NOT write interpretations; only what is observable and measurable

- Carry out for several days so reactivity effects can decrease

Front 347

Interviews (Structured Behavioral Interviews)

Back 347

First step in identifying list of behaviors, which can be used later in direct observation

Front 348

What 2 interview sources do you use in the FBA?

Back 348

1. The Individual

- Ask "what," "when" questions DO NOT ASK "why"

- Identify primary concerns of the individual

- You can give the individual questionnaires or have them record self-monitoring data

2. Significant Others

- Sometimes one cannot interview the individual directly or one needs information from important others (parents etc.)

- Interviewing significant others is a great way to assess the participation of significant others in your intervention plan

Front 349

Tests (Standardized Tests) in the FBA

Back 349

- Many published standardized tests exist

- Consistent administration is key: each time a standardized test is administered, the same questions and tasks are presented in a specified way and the same scoring criteria and procedures are used

- Most standardized tests do NOT work well with functional behavior assessments because results are not translated directly into target behaviors

Front 350

Other things that need to done with the FBA

Back 350

- Review records and data at the outset of the case

- Consider biological/Medical variables that may be affecting the client

- Conduct a preliminary assessment of the client in order to identify the referral problem

- Explain behavioral concepts using non-technical language

- Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior-analytic (non-mentalistic) terms

- Provide behavior analytic services in collaboration with others who support and/or provide services to one's clients

- Select intervention strategies based on environmental and resource constraints

- Identify and make environmental changes that reduce the need for behavior analysis services

Front 351

Ecological Assessment

Back 351

- A great deal of information is gathered about the individual and the various settings in which that individual lives and works

- Included is information about physiological conditions, physical settings, interactions with others, home environments, etc.

- Creates a lot of DESCRIPTIVE data

- Costly in terms of time, money, etc.

- One should know when it is appropriate to use

Front 352

Reactivity

Back 352

- The effects of the assessment process on the behavior of the individual being assessed

- Reactivity most likely when observation methods are obtrusive

- Self-monitoring = most obtrusive data collection method

- Reactive effects are usually temporary

Front 353

How do you reduce reactivity?

Back 353

- Be as unobtrusive as possible

- Repeat observations until reactive effects subside

- Take effects into account when interpreting your data

Front 354

Habilitation

Back 354

- Assesses meaningfulness of change

- Is this change really useful to the client?

- Habilitation occurs when a person's repertoire has been changed such that short-term and long-term reinforcers are maximized and short-term and long-term punishers are minimized

- You want to assess if the target behaviors you might potentially change in a client will be habilitative for your client. In order to do so, ask yourself the 10 questions

Front 355

What are the 10 questions you ask yourself when evaluating the habilitation/social significance of target behaviors?

Back 355

1. Is this behavior likely to produce reinforcement in the client's natural environment after intervention ends?

2. Is this behavior a prerequisite for a more complex functional skill?

3. Will this behavior increase the client's access to environments?

- "access behaviors" a means of producing indirect benefits to clients

4. will changing this behavior predispose others to interact with the client in a more supportive manner?

5. Is this behavior a pivotal behavior or a behavioral cusp?

6. Is this an age-appropriate behavior?

7. If this behavior is to be reduced/eliminated from the client's repertoire, has an adaptive and functional behavior been selected to replace it?

- "constructional approach"

8. Does this behavior represent the actual goal, or is it only indirectly related?

9. Is this "just talk," or is it the real behavior of interest?

10. If the goal of itself is not a specific behavior, will this behavior help achieve it?

Front 356

Normalization

Back 356

- The belief that people with disabilities should, to the maximum extent possible, be physically and socially integrated into mainstream society regardless of the degree or type of disability

- The use of progressively more typical settings and procedures to establish personal behavior which are as culturally normal as possible

Front 357

Behavior Cusps

Back 357

- A behavior that has sudden and dramatic consequences that extend well beyond the idiosyncratic change itself because it exposes the person to new environments, reinforcers, contingencies, responses, and stimulus control

- You should select this as goals for intervention with your clients if possible to make their learning more efficient

Front 358

Pivotal Behaviors

Back 358

- A behavior that, when learned, produced corresponding modifications or co-variation in other untrained behaviors

- Teaching pivotal behaviors reduces intervention time

- Strategy utilized: pivotal response training

- PIVOTAL: so critical that once you learn it, it will lead to more complex behaviors

Front 359

What are the similarities between behavioral cusps and pivotal behaviors?

Back 359

Both are behaviors you want to teach first to clients because they are are upon which other behaviors can be built

Front 360

What are the differences between behavioral cusps and pivotal behaviors?

Back 360

- Behavior cusps are more about the person accessing new contingencies and environments (not behaviors)

- Pivotal behaviors are more about the person experiencing corresponding changes in other untrained behaviors (not contingencies and environments)

When you are creating goals for intervention for your client, you should select behavior cusps and pivotal behaviors to teach them

Front 361

Generative Learning

Back 361

- Enhancing comprehension of new material due to previous learning

- Achieve generative learning through teaching material to ensure the client is FLUENT with the material and through teaching the client behavior cusps and pivotal behaviors

Front 362

Prioritizing target behaviors

Back 362

1. Threat to health or safety of clients or others

2. Frequency: opportunities to use new behavior. Are there a lot of opportunities so that the behavior is maintained in the natural environment/ Occurrence of problem

3. Longevity of problem: Chronic problem should come before the new one

4. Potential for higher rates of reinforcement

5. Relative importance of this target behavior to future skill development and independent functioning

6. Reduction of negative attention fro others

7. Reinforcement for significant others: exercise caution when considering this

8. Likelihood of success: some behaviors are harder to change than others

9. Cost-benefit ratio to change client's behavior: costs include time and effort. Cost should be low and benefit should be high

Front 363

4 functions of problem behaviors

Back 363

Sensory

Escape

Attention

Tangible

Front 364

What is the acronym for the 4 functions of behavior?

Back 364

SEAT

Front 365

Default Technologies

Back 365

- Coercive, punishment-based interventions often selected arbitrarily

- Conducting FBAs decreases reliance on default technologies

Front 366

Functional Analysis

Back 366

- The only FBA method that allows us to confirm hypotheses regarding functional relations between behaviors and environmental events

- Antecedents and consequences are arranged so that their separate effects on behavior can be observed

- The "gold standard" of assessment procedures

- "Analogs" = the arrangement of variables. Analog conditions allow for better control of variables

- Research shows the functional analyses done in natural settings yield same results as those done in simulated settings

Front 367

What are the 2 types of functional analyses?

Back 367

Extended Functional Analysis

Brief Functional Analysis

Front 368

Extended Functional Analysis

Back 368

The type of functional analyses we are explaining here

Front 369

Brief Functional Analysis

Back 369

A brief version of the extended functional analyses

Front 370

4 Typical Original Conditions of Functional Analysis

Back 370

3 Test Conditions and 1 Control Condition:

1. Contingent Attention

2. Contingent Escape

3. Alone

4. Control: Problem behavior is low in this unstructured condition because reinforcement is freely available and no demands are placed on the person

- Each test condition contains an MO and a potential source of reinforcement for behavior

- The conditions are presented systematically one at a time and in alternating sequence until a pattern of problem behavior emerges

- Sessions are repeated

Front 371

How is functional analysis data interpreted?

Back 371

Visually inspecting a graph of the results to see the conditions under which high rates of behavior occurred

Front 372

Play Condition

Back 372

This condition tests for automatic reinforcement and serves as a control condition

Front 373

Tangible Condition

Back 373

Only use this when you hypothesize access to tangibles to be the function of the behavior

Front 374

Brief Functional Analysis

Back 374

- Conditioning a functional analysis in a short period of time

- Systematically manipulating environmental variables to trigger the problem behavior and reinforce it when it happens

- determines which variable is maintaining the behavior

- 4 variables: attention, escape, alone, and play

- Each condition is run for 10 minutes

- Each condition, except for the alone condition, must include an MO and SD that signal reinforcement is available

- Within each condition, you purposely trigger the problem behavior and reinforce it when it occurs to observe if it increases

- If that consequence is the function, the behavior will increase

- If that consequence is NOT the function, the behavior will not increase or will not occur again at all

Front 375

Advantages and Disadvantages of Functional Analysis

Back 375

Advantages:

- Clear demonstration of variables that relate to problem behavior

- Standard to which all other forms of FBA are evaluated

- Enables development of effective reinforcement-based treatment

Disadvantages:

- May temporarily strengthen the problem behavior

- May result in the behavior acquiring new functions

- Acceptability is low

- Difficult to use for serious, low frequency behaviors

- If conducted in contrived settings, may not identify idiosyncratic variables related to problem behaviors

- Requires time, effort, and professional expertise

Front 376

Direct Descriptive FBA

Back 376

Direct observation of problem behavior and the antecedent and consequent events under naturally occurring conditions

Front 377

What are the 3 data collection methods for descriptive FBA's?

Back 377

1. ABC Continuous Recording

2. ABC Narrative Recording

3. Scatter Plot

Front 378

ABC Continuous Recording

Back 378

- Record occurrences of targeted problem behaviors and selected environmental events within the natural routine during a specified period of time

- All ABC data should be recorded for a minimum of 20-30 minutes

Front 379

Advantages of ABC Continuous Recording

Back 379

- Uses precise measures

- Provides useful contextual information and correlations regarding environmental events and the problem behavior, which can provide useful information for later functional analyses

- Calculates Conditional Probabilities

- Proportion of the occurrence of problem behavior preceded by a specific antecedent

- Proportion of the occurrence of problem behavior followed by a specific consequence

- Can be misleading

Front 380

Disadvantages of ABC Continuous Recording

Back 380

- Often, antecedents and consequences do not reliably precede and follow problem behavior, making correlations difficult to detect

Front 381

Conditional Probability

Back 381

- The probability that a target behavior will occur in a specific circumstance

- Taken from ABC data

- Looks at the proportion of the occurrence of problem behavior:

- Preceded by a specific antecedent and/or

- Followed by a specific consequence

- The closer the conditional probability is to 1.0, the more convincing your hypothesis becomes that the antecedent that preceded it and consequence that followed it is functionally related to the target behavior

- The farther the conditional probability is from 1.0, the less convincing your hypothesis becomes that the antecedent that preceded it and consequence that followed it is functionally related to the target behavior

- Conditional probability data is reported in decimal form, not percentages

- Can be misleading

Front 382

What is the formula for Conditional Probability?

Back 382

# of Behaviors Preceded by a Specific Antecedent and/ or Followed by a Specific Consequence

_______________________________________________

Total # of behaviors

Front 383

ABC Narrative Recording

Back 383

- Data are collected only when behaviors of interest are observed

- Recording is open ended

- Difficult to discriminate which environmental events actual occasion the problem behavior

Front 384

Advantages of ABC Narrative Recording

Back 384

- Less time-consuming than continuous recording

Front 385

Disadvantages of ABC Narrative Recording

Back 385

- Utility in identifying behavioral function NOT established

- May yield false positives because data are collected only when behavior occurs

- The same antecedent and consequent events may be present when problem behavior is absent

- Reliability may be low

- Observers may report "inferred states" rather than events

Front 386

Scatter Plot

Back 386

- Procedure for recording the extent to which a target behavior occurs more often at particular times than others

- Divide day into blocks of time

- For each time period, enter a symbol to indicate whether problem behavior occurred a lot, some, or not at all

- Analyze for patterns to identify temporal distributions of behavior and events that occur at that time

Front 387

Advantages of Scatter Plot

Back 387

- Identifies time periods when the problem behavior occurs

- Can be useful for pinpointing periods of the day when more focused ABC assessments can be conducted

Front 388

Disadvantages of Scatter Plot

Back 388

- Subjective

- Does not determine the function of problem behavior

- Does not offer any replacement behaviors

Front 389

Indirect FBA

Back 389

- Identifying potential events in the naturla setting that correlate with the challenging behavior by gathering information from others who know the individual displaying the challenging behavior very well via methods, such as RATING SCALES, CHECKLISTS, STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS:

- Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS)

- Motivation Analysis Rating Scale (MARS)

- Problem Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ)

- Functional Analysis Screening Tool (FAST)

- Questions About Behavioral Function (QABF)

Front 390

Functional Equivalence

Back 390

- When you decrease a behavior, you MUST select an ACCEPTABLE ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIOR to be be established or increased for your client

- Your intervention must match the function of the behavior

- Teaching functional skills is also one of the 6 BASIC CLIENT RIGHTS

Front 391

If your FBA indicates the client is in need of their behavior being:

Back 391

- Established

- Maintained

- Increased

- Decreased

Front 392

Established

Back 392

When results show your client does not have the target behavior or skill in his/her repertoire, you should teach your client the new behavior or skill

Front 393

Maintained

Back 393

After you establish the target behavior or skill in his/her repertoire, you must work on MAINTENANCE (OVER TIME) in the natural environment

Front 394

Increased

Back 394

When results show the problem is that the rate of the target behavior is too low, then you increase that target behavior to a level that is acceptable

Front 395

Decreased

Back 395

When results show the problem is that the rate of the target behavior is too high, then you decrease that target behavior to a level that is acceptable

Front 396

Discrepancy Analysis

Back 396

- Tells you if problem behavior is at problematic levels

- Helps you to determine the behavioral standard for acceptability

Front 397

Assessment is Ongoing

Back 397

- You should continue to monitor how effective your interventions are over time

- Functions of challenging behavior are dynamic and change over time

- Ongoing evaluation and assessment is also one of the 6 BASIC CLIENT RIGHTS

Front 398

Why is Defining Target Behaviors so Important in ABA?

Back 398

Importance of Definition to Researchers:

- Definitions are required for replication

- Replication is required for research

Importance of Definition to Practitioners:

- Accurate evaluation requires explicit definition of behavior

- Accurate and believable evaluation of effectiveness

Front 399

What are the 3 characteristics of good operational definitions?

Back 399

Objective

Clear

Complete

Front 400

Objective

Back 400

Refer only to the observable

Front 401

Clear

Back 401

Readable and unambiguous

Front 402

Complete

Back 402

Delineates boundaries of a definition (included and excluded)

Front 403

Social Validity

Back 403

Is the person's life changed in a positive and meaningful way?

Involves in 3 factors:

- Social significance of the goals

- Social appropriateness of the procedures

- Social importance of the effects

- Are consumers satisfied with the results of your work?

- Even if your data shows your intervention was awesomely effective with the client, if the mediators are dissatisfied with the intervention in some way, they are probably not going to maintain the intervention in the future

Front 404

What are the 2 Procedures for Identifying Effective Reinforcers?

Back 404

1. Stimulus Preference Assessment

2. Reinforcer Assessment

Front 405

Stimulus Preference Assessment

Back 405

- Identifies stimuli that are likely to function as reinforcers

- A variety of procedures used to determine:

- Stimuli that a person prefers

- The relative preference value of stimuli

- The conditions under which those preference values change when task demands, deprivation states, or schedules of reinforcement change

Front 406

What are the 3 Basic Methods of Stimulus Preference Assessment

Back 406

1. Asking about stimulus preferences

2. Free-operant observation

3. trial-based methods

(can be combined to compare methods)

Front 407

Asking About Stimulus Preferences

Back 407

Ask the Target Person

- Open-ended questions (orally or written)

- Choice format: "which would you work for?"

- Ranking objects on a list

- If person has limited language, pictures of actual stimuli can be presented. Nods or points can be accepted as making a choice

- Not a sure fire system. There are researched discrpeancies between a person claiming something as reinforcing and the item maintaining its reinforcing power

Ask Significant Others

Offer a Pre-Task Choice

- "What do you want to earn for doing the task?" Participant can choose one item from 2-3 items

Front 408

Free Operant Observation

Back 408

- Recording what activities a person engages in when they can choose during a period of unrestricted access to numerous activities

Front 409

Contrived Free-Operant Observation

Back 409

The practitioner fills the environment with a variety of items that the person may like

Front 410

Naturalistic Free-Operant Observation

Back 410

Conducted in the learner's everyday environment as unobtrusively as possible. Observer records how the person allocates his/her time with each activity

Front 411

Trial-Based Methods

Back 411

- Stimuli are presented to the learner in a series of trials and the learner's responses to the stimuli are measured as an index of preference

- The more a person approaches, touches, or engages with a stimulus, the more likely it is that the stimulus is preferred

- Preferred stimuli are sometimes labeled as:

- High Preference (HP)

- Medium Preference (MP)

- Low Preference (LP)

Front 412

What are 3 Ways to Measure a Learner's Behavior

Back 412

1. Approach

2. Contact

3. Engagemen

Front 413

Approach

Back 413

Any detectable movement toward the stimulus

Front 414

Contact

Back 414

Touching or holding the item

Front 415

Engagement

Back 415

Total time or percentage of intervals in which the person interacts with the item

Front 416

What are the 3 Types of Trial-Based Methods of Stimulus Preference Assessments?

Back 416

1. Paired Stimulus

2. Multiple Stimulus

3. Single Stimulus

Front 417

Paired Stimulus

Back 417

- Simultaneous presentation of 2 stimuli

- observer records which of the 2 stimuli the learner chooses

- Data reflects how many times each stimulus is chosen

- Stimuli are ranked in terms of high, medium, or low preference

- Sometimes this method outperforms single stimulus presentation in terms of ultimately identifying reinforcers. It is more efficient.

- Takes more time because every pair of stimuli must be presented

Front 418

Multiple Stimulus

Back 418

- Simultaneous presentation of an array of 3 or more stimuli

- Reduces assessment time

- 2 Variations of Multiple Stimulus- Multiple Stimuli WITH Replacement and Multiple Stimuli WITHOUT Replacement

Front 419

Multiple Stimuli WITH Replacement

Back 419

The item chosen remains in the array and the items not chosen are replaced with new items

Front 420

Multiple Stimuli WITHOUT Replacement

Back 420

The chosen item is removed from the array, the order or placement of the remaining items is rearranged and the next trial begins

Front 421

Single Stimulus

Back 421

- Most basic method for assessing preference

- Well suited for individuals who have hard time selecting among 2 or more stimuli

- Target stimuli among all sensory systems (visual, auditory, vestibular, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, and multisensory)

- Presented one at a time in random order and the person's reaction to each stimulus is recorded

- Approach or rejection responses are recorded in terms of occurrence (yes/no), frequency, or duration

- After recording, the next item is presented

- Items should be presented several times and the order should be varied

Front 422

Guidelines for Selecting and Using Stimulus Preference Assessments

Back 422

- Monitor the learner's activities during the time period before the stimulus preference assessment session to be aware of MOs

- Use the methods that balance the cost-benefit of brief assessments with more prolonged assessments that may delay reinforcement identification

- When time is brief, conduct a brief stimulus preference assessment with fewer items in an array

- When possible, combine data from multiple assessment methods and others, free-operant observation, and trial-based methods

Front 423

Reinforcer Assessment

Back 423

- A variety of direct, data based methods used to present one or more stimuli contingent on a target response and then measuring the future effects on the rate of responding

- Used to determine the relative effects of a given stimulus as reinforcement under different and changing conditions and to assess the comparative effectiveness of multiple stimuli as reinforcers for a given behavior under certain conditions

- Puts the potential reinforcers to a direct test by presenting them contingent on occurrences of a behavior and measuring any effects on response rates

- The only way to know for sure whether a given stimulus serves as a reinforcer is to present it immediately following the occurrence of the behavior and note its effects on responding

Front 424

Concurrent Schedule Reinforcer Assessment

Back 424

- Two or more contingencies of reinforcement operate independently and simultaneously for 2 or more behaviors

- Pits 2 stimuli against each other to see which will produce the larger increase in responding when presented as a consequence for responding

- Shows the relative effectiveness of high preference (HP) and low preference (LP) stimuli as reinforcers

- May be used to determine differences between relative and absolute reinforcement effects of stimuli.

- Think MATCHING LAW

Front 425

Multiple Schedule Reinforcer Assessment

Back 425

- Consists of presenting 2 or more component schedules of reinforcement for a single response, with only one component schedule in effect at any given time

- An SD signals the presence of each component schedule and that stimulus is present as long as the schedule is in effect

Front 426

Progressive-Ratio Schedule Reinforcer Assessment

Back 426

- Provides a framework for assessing the relative effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcement as response requirements increase

- Requirements for reinforcement are increased systematically over time independent of the participant's behavior

- The practitioner gradually requires more responses per presentation of the preferred stimulus until a breaking point is reached and the response rate declines

Front 427

Identifying Potential Punishers

Back 427

- Just like we identify and assess for reinforcers, we must do the same for punishers

- The same issues that affect reinforcement apply to punishment

- what is punishing for one person may not be for another

- Sometimes hard to determine for people with intellectual disabilities

- Punishers are transitory

Front 428

Punisher Assessment

Back 428

- Punisher assessments are the SAME as the reinforcer assessments above

- Advantages:

- The sooner an effective punisher can be identified, the sooner it can be used as treatment for the problem behavior

- Informs us of the INTENSITY of the punisher needed to effectively decrease or eliminate the problem behavior. We want to use the smallest intensity of the punisher, but that is still effective

Front 429

How Do We Conduct Punisher Assessments?

Back 429

Conducted by measuring negative verbalizations, avoidance movements, and escape attempts associated with each potential punishing stimulus

Front 430

How Do Punisher Assessments Differ From Reinforcer Assessments?

Back 430

Different than reinforcer assessments, in which we record data on engagement or duration of contact with each potential reinforcing stimulus

Front 431

What do you use the punisher assessments for?

Back 431

The data is used to develop a hypothesis on the relative effectiveness of each stimulus change as a punisher

Front 432

Experimental Control

Back 432

When a predictable change in behavior can be reliably produced by the systematic manipulation of some aspect of the individual's environment

Front 433

What are the 4 important elements of behavior?

Back 433

- Behavior is Individual

- Behavior is Continuous

- Behavior is Determined

- Behavior variability is Extrinsic to the organism

Front 434

Behavior is Individual

Back 434

- Behavior is defined as a person's interaction with the environment

- Groups of people do NOT behave!

- Experimental strategy of ABA is based on single-subject methods of analysis; NOT large groups

Front 435

Behavior is Continuous

Back 435

- Behavior changes over time

- Thus, it requires continuous measurement over time

Front 436

Behavior is Determined

Back 436

- The occurrence of any event is determined by the functional relations it holds to other events

- Behavior is a natural phenomenon and subject to the same natural laws as other natural as other natural phenomena

Front 437

Behavior variability is Extrinsic to the organism

Back 437

Variability is the result of the environment such as:

- The IV under investigation

- Some uncontrolled aspect of experiment

- Uncontrolled factor outside of experiment

Front 438

When we see variability in our data, what should we do?

Back 438

- Behavior analysts should attempt to experimentally manipulate factors suspected of causing the variability in the data to look for causal factors

- In practice, behavior analysts seek treatment variables robust enough to overcome variabilit

Front 439

6 Components of Experiments in ABA

Back 439

1. At least one subject

2. At least one behavior (DV)

3. At least one setting

4. At least one treatment (IV)

5. A measurement system and ongoing analysis of data

6. An experimental design

Front 440

Experimental Question

Back 440

- All well-planned experiments begin with this

- A brief but specific statement of what the researcher wants to learn from conducting the experiment

- Can be in question or statement form:

- Question form: what are the effects of the IV on the DV for what population and in what setting?

- Statement form: The purpose of the study was the see the effects of the IV on the DV

Front 441

At Least One Subject

Back 441

- ABA uses Single- Subject Design

- Called this because the subject acts as his/her own control

- This means repeated measures of the subject's behavior during each phase of the study provide the basis for comparing experimental variables as they are presented or withdrawn in subsequent conditions

- The individual is exposed to each condition several times over the course of a study

- ABA studies usually involve more than one subject (4-8 is common)

- Each subject's data are graphed separately

- ABA does NOT use group comparison designs that are traditionally used in psychology that have a large number of subjects. Group designs mask individual progress

Front 442

At Least One Behavior

Back 442

In some studies, more than one DV is measured. Reasons for multiple dependent variables include the following:

- Provide data patterns that can serve as controls for evaluating and replicating the effects of an IV

- Assess the presence and the extent of the IV's effects on behaviors other than the response class to which it was directly applied

- Determine whether changes in the behavior of a person other than the subject occur during the course of an experiment and if such changes can explain changes in the subject's behavior

Front 443

At Least One Setting

Back 443

- Control 2 sets of environmental variables to demonstrate experimental control:

1. IV

2. Extraneous Variables

- In labs, we can control environmentals better, but in applied settings of homes, schools etc., it is harder to control the environment

- When unplanned variations take place, you must try to wait them out or incorporate them into the design. Repeated measures of behavior tells us whether unplanned environmental changes are of concern

Front 444

At Least One Treatment

Back 444

The particular aspect of the environment that the experimenter manipulates to find out whether it affects the subject's behavior

Front 445

A Measurement System and Ongoing Analysis of Data

Back 445

- Observation and recording procedures must be conducted in a standardized manner

- Standardization involves every aspect of the measurement system

- Behaviorists must detect changes in level, trend, and variabilit

Front 446

Experimental Design

Back 446

- The particular arrangement of conditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of the presence, absence, or different values of the IV can be made

Front 447

Important Rules of Experimental Design

Back 447

Change only one variable at a time

- If examining a treatment package, ensure that the entire package is presented or withdrawn at the same time.

Do not get locked into textbook designs

- Select and combine designs that best fit the research questions

Front 448

What are the 2 types of Experimental Designs?

Back 448

1. Nonparametric Analysis

2. Parametric Analysis

Front 449

Treatment Package

Back 449

Is when multiple IVs are bundled into one program, such as a token economy plus praise plus time-out

Front 450

Nonparametric Analysis

Back 450

IV either present or absent during study

Front 451

Parametric Analysis

Back 451

The value of the IV is manipulated. Seeks to discover the differential effects of a range of values

Front 452

After creating a treatment package, how do you analyze the individual treatments that are part of that package

Back 452

- A process called component analysis looks at the effect of each part of the treatment packages

- Conduct a component analysis to determine the effective components of an intervention package

- You want to keep those effective components going while getting rid of the ineffective components

Front 453

Steady State Responding

Back 453

- A pattern of responding that exhibits very little variation in its measured dimensional quantities over a period of time

- Provides the basis for BASELINE LOGIC

Front 454

Baseline Logic

Back 454

Refers to the experimental reasoning inherent in single-subject experimental designs

Front 455

What are the 3 Elements in Baseline Logic?

Back 455

1. Prediction

2. Verification

3. Replication

Each of these elements depends on an overall experimental approach called steady state strategy

Front 456

Steady State Strategy

Back 456

Repeated exposure of a given subject to a given condition while trying to eliminate extraneous influences on behavior and obtaining a stable pattern of responding before introducing the next condition

Front 457

Function of Baseline Data

Back 457

- Serves as a control condition

- Does NOT imply the absence of intervention. It can be the absence of a specific IV

Front 458

Benefits of Baseline Data

Back 458

- To use the subject's performance in the absence of the IV as an objective basis for detecting change

- To obtain descriptions of ABC correlations for the planning of an effective treatment

- To guide us in setting the initial criteria for reinforcement

- To see if the behavior targeted for change really warrants intervention

Front 459

What are the 4 Patterns of Baseline Data?

Back 459

1. Descending Baseline

2. Ascending Baseline

3. Variable Baseline

4. Stable Baseline

Front 460

Descending Baseline Data

Back 460

- Shows the behavior is already changing

- Generally, one should NOT implement the IV when baseline is descending

- But you can do so if the behavior you are trying to change is something you want to increase and the descending trend shows it is worsening

- If descending baseline is due to a behavior you want to decrease, then you should wait because the behavior is already improving

Front 461

Ascending Baseline

Back 461

- Shows the behavior is already changing

- Generally, one should NOT implement the IV when baseline is ascending

- But you can do so if the behavior your trying to change is something you want to decrease and the ascending trend shows it is worsening

- If Ascending baseline is due to a behavior you want to increase, then you should wait because the behavior is already improving

Front 462

Variable Baseline

Back 462

- No clear trend

- If one's data is variable, wait it out and do not introduce the IV

- Variability is assumed to be due to environmental variables that are uncontrolled. If you introduce the IV now, you will not be ale to tell if it changed the behavior or not

- You should try to control uncontrolled sources of variability

Front 463

Stable Baseline

Back 463

- No evidence of ascending or descending trend

- All of the values of the DV fall in a small range of values

- BEST way to look at the effects of the IV on the DV
- You can introduce the IV now

Front 464

What are the 3 parts of Baseline Logic?

Back 464

1. Prediction

2. Verification

3. Replication

Front 465

Prediction

Back 465

- The anticipated outcome of a presently unknown measurement

- Data should be collected until stability is clear

- The more data points, the better the predictive power

- There is no "magic number" of data points

- Main question: Are data stable enough to serve as the basis for experimental comparison

Front 466

Affirmation of the Consequent

Back 466

- If the IV were not applied, the behavior, as indicated by baseline data, would not change

- The experimenter predicts the IV will change the behavior

- If the IV is controlling the DV(a), then the data path in the presence of the IV will show that the DV has changed (b)

- When the IV is present, data show DV has changed (b is true)

- Thus, the IV is controlling the DV (thus, a is true)

Front 467

Verification

Back 467

Verification of a previously predicted level of baseline responding by termination or withdrawal of the treatment variable

Front 468

Replication

Back 468

- Replication is the essence of believability

- Shows reliability of behavior change; we can make it happen again!

- Replication is accomplished by reintroducing the IV

Front 469

What are the 5 main Experimental Designs?

Back 469

1. Multiple Baseline

2. Changing Criterion

3. Reversal

4. Alternating Treatments

5. Withdrawal

Front 470

Multiple Baseline Design

Back 470

- Most widely used design

- Highly flexible

- Staggered implementation of the intervention in a step-wise fashion across behaviors, settings, and subjects

- Do not have to withdraw a treatment variable in this design

- When it is UNETHICAL or impractical to reverse conditions or when the behavior is irreversible, use this design instead of a reversal design

Front 471

Prediction, Verification, and Replication (PVR) in the Multiple Baseline Design

Back 471

A functional relation requires a change in behavior with the onset of the intervention

- Apply IV to Behavior 2 when you can confidently predict that the behavior would remain the same in constant conditions

- If behaviors 2 and 3 remain unchanged after the application of the IV to behavior 1, this verifies the prediction

- If the IV changes behavior 2 like it did behavior 1, the effects of the IV has been replicated

- The more replications, the more convincing the demonstration

- Most commonly 3-5 tiers

Front 472

Multiple Baseline Across Behaviors

Back 472

- Two or more different behaviors of SAME SUBJECT

- Each subject serves as his/her own control

- After steady state baseline responding, the IV is applied to the first behavior, while other behaviors are kept in baseline

- When steady state responding is reached for the first behavior, then the IV is applied to next behavior

Front 473

Multiple Baseline Across Settings

Back 473

- A single behavior is targeted in 2 or more different settings or conditions

- After steady state baseline responding, the IV is applied to the first setting, while other settings are kept in baseline

- When steady responding is reached for the first setting, then the IV is applied to next setting

Front 474

Multiple Baseline Across Subjects

Back 474

- One target behavior for 2 or more subjects in the SAME SETTING

- After steady state baseline responding, the IV is applied to the first subject, while other subjects are kept in baseline

- When steady responding is reached for the first subject, then the IV is applied to next subject

- Most widely used multiple baseline design

Front 475

What are the 2 Variations of Multiple Baseline Design?

Back 475

1. Multiple Probe Design

2. Delayed Multiple Baseline Design

- Both inherently weaker than traditional multiple baselines

- use these when extended baseline measurement is unnecessary, impractical, too costly, or unavailable

Front 476

Multiple Probe Design

Back 476

- Analyzes relation between the IV and acquisition of skill sequences

- Instead of simultaneous baselines, probes provide the basis for determining if behavior change has occurred prior to intervention

Front 477

Delayed Multiple Baseline Design

Back 477

- Initial baseline and intervention begin and subsequent baselines are added in a delayed or staggered fashion

- Effective when (1) reversal design is not possible, (2) limited resources preclude a full-scale design, (3) when a new behavior, subject, or setting becomes available

- Limitations: Shorter baselines do not show interdependence of DV

Front 478

Guidelines for Multiple Baseline Design

Back 478

1. Select independent, yet functionally similar baselines

2. Select concurrent and plausibly related multiple baselines

3. Do not apply the IV to the next behavior too soon

4. Vary significantly the lengths of multiple baselines

5. Intervene on the most stable baseline first

Front 479

Select independent, yet functionally similar baselines

Back 479

- Behaviors are functionally independent of one another

- Behaviors share enough similarity that they will change with the application of the same IV

- Behaviors should be of different response classes

Front 480

Select concurrent and plausibly related multiple baselines

Back 480

- Behaviors must be measured concurrently

- All relevant variables that influence one behavior must have the opportunity to influence other behaviors

Front 481

Vary significantly the lengths of multiple baselines

Back 481

The more baselines differ in length, the stronger the design

Front 482

Advantages of the Multiple Baseline Design

Back 482

- Successful intervention does NOT have to be removed

- Evaluates generalization

- Easy to implement

Front 483

Disadvantages of the Multiple Baseline Design

Back 483

- Functional relationship is NOT directly shown in this design

- Effectiveness of the IV is demonstrated, but not information regarding the function of the target behavior

- IV may be delayed for certain behaviors, settings, or subjects

- Takes resources to implement properly

Front 484

Changing Criterion Design

Back 484

- Experimental design in which an initial baseline phase is followed by a series of treatment phases consisting of successive and gradually changing criteria for reinforcement or punishment

- There is only ONE BEHAVIOR in this design

- Behavior in this design has to already be in the subject's repertoire

- Evaluates treatment that is applied in a graduated or step-wise fashion

- Technically, it is a variation of the multiple baseline design

Front 485

Prediction, Verification, and Replication (PVR) in the Changing Criterion Design

Back 485

- Graphs in changing criterion designs should have the lines separate a lot to show a functional relationship

- Experimental control is evidenced by the extent that the level of responding changes to conform to each new criterion

- If data points do not fall around the criterion lines, that shows us that there is very little experiential control

Front 486

Guidelines for Changing Criterion Design

Back 486

1. Length of Phases

2. Magnitude of Criterion Changes

3. Number of Criterion Changes

Front 487

Length of Phases

Back 487

- Each phase must be long enough to achieve stable responding

- Target behaviors that are slower to change require longer phases

- Validity of the design is increased when you vary the length of each phase

Front 488

Magnitude of Criterion Changes

Back 488

- The size of the changes between each criterion should vary to prove strong functional relations

- Changes in size must be large enough to be detectable, but not so large as to be unachievable

- Changes in size can be smaller if you are dealing with stable data

Front 489

Number of Criterion Changes

Back 489

The more criterion changes, the better proof of experimental control

Front 490

Advantages of Changing Criterion Designs

Back 490

- Does not require reversal of improved behavior

- Enables an experimental analysis within the context of a gradually improving behavior

Front 491

Disadvantages of Changing Criterion Designs

Back 491

- The target behavior must already be in the person's repertoire

- Not appropriate for analyzing the effects of a shaping program

- It is NOT a comparison design

Front 492

Why is the Changing Criterion Design is NOT Appropriate for Analyzing Effects of a Shaping Program?

Back 492

- It is an EXPERIMENTAL DEISGN that results in behavior change

- With the changing criterion design, you cannot use it with a NOVEL behavior. The behavior you choose to use in this design MUST already be in the client's repertoire (unlike shaping)

- The changing criterion design is best for evaluating the effects of instructional techniques on step-wise changes in rate, accuracy, duration, or latency of a single target behavior

Front 493

Shaping

Back 493

- Behavior Change Strategy (not an experimental design)

- It is used to teach NOVEL behaviors. A novel behavior is developed by reinforcing responses that meet a gradually changing criterion, which are successive approximations, towards the terminal behavior

- The changing response criterion in shaping are topographical in nature, requiring different forms of behavior at each new level

Front 494

Reversal Design

Back 494

- Any experimental design in which the researcher REVERSES responding to a level obtained in a previous condition

- Encompasses experimental designs in which the IV is withdrawn or reversed in its focus

- Alternation between baseline and a particular intervention

- Each reversal in a reversal design strengthens experimental control

- Evidence of a functional relation is strengthened with each reversal

- For a reversal to occur, the behavior must approximate the level during baseline

- Requires 3 consecutive phases: initial baseline, intervention, return to baseline

- A-B-A-B preferred over A-B-A as stronger design

- Most powerful within-subject design for demonstrating function

Front 495

What are the 5 Variations of the Reversal Design?

Back 495

1. Repeated Reversals

2. BAB

3. Multiple Treatment Design

4. NCR Reversal Technique

5. DRO/DRA/DRI Reversal Technique

Front 496

Prediction, Verification, and Replication (PVR) in the Reversal Design

Back 496

- Involves prediction, verification, and replication

- The IV is responsible for behavior change if repetition of baseline and treatment phases approximate the original phases

Front 497

Ethical Issues About Reversals

Back 497

If your client is displaying severe and dangerous behaviors, then do NOT spend time just taking baseline data from the start. It is your ETHICAL responsibility to get in there and immediately provide treatment for the health and safety of your client, so you can use a B-A-B Reversal

Front 498

Repeated Reversals

Back 498

- Simple extension of A-B-A-B

- The more reversals, the stronger your evidence of control

- Redundancy may be a concern

Front 499

B-A-B Reversals

Back 499

- A 3 phase reversal design

- Phase 1: IV (B)

- Phase 2: IV removed (A)

- Phase 3: IV reintroduced (B)

- Weaker than the A-B-A design because it does not enable assessment of the effects of the IV during baseline

- Best design when your client displays severe and dangerous behaviors, as you do not wait to start intervention with this design

- Also appropriate for when an IV is already in place and you have limited time

Front 500

Disadvantages of B-A-B Reversals

Back 500

- Sequence effects are a disadvantage because the level of behavior in condition A may have been influenced by the IV before it

Front 501

Sequence Effects

Back 501

- Effects on a subject's behavior in a given condition that are the result of the subject's experience with a prior condition

Front 502

Multiple Treatment Reversal

Back 502

- A type of reversal design that compares 2 or more IVs to baseline and/or to one another

- You can tell you are dealing with a multiple treatment reversal when letters are added, like C and/or D, etc.

- Disadvantage: Sequence effects

Front 503

Non-Contingent Reinforcement (NCR) Reversal Technique

Back 503

- An experimental technique for showing the effects of reinforcement by using NCR as a CONTROL condition INSTEAD of a baseline condition in which no reinforcement is provided

- Allows us to examine contingent reinforcement

- The reinforcer is presented on a fixed or variable time schedule independent of the subject's behavior

Front 504

DRO/DRI/DRA Reversal Technique

Back 504

- An experimental technique for showing the effects of reinforcement by using DRO, DRA, DRI as a CONTROL condition INSTEAD of a baseline condition in which no reinforcement is provided

- Allows us to examine continent reinforcement

Front 505

DRO Reversal Technique

Back 505

Reinforcement following any behavior other than the target behavior

Front 506

DRI Reversal Technique

Back 506

Reinforcement following behavior that is physically incompatible with target behavior

Front 507

DRA Reversal Technique

Back 507

Reinforcement following an alternative behavior other than the target behavior

Front 508

Advantages of Reversal Design

Back 508

- Clear demonstration of the existence or absence of a functional relation between the IV and DV

- Enables us to count the amount of behavior change

- Return to baseline tells us we need to program for maintenance

Front 509

Disadvantages of Reversal Design

Back 509

- Irreversibility

- ETHICAL ISSUES, as well as social and educational issues, can arise when you REMOVE an effective IV

Front 510

Irreversibility

Back 510

- The level of behavior observed in an earlier phase cannot be reproduced even though experimental conditions are the same as they were during the earlier phase

- When irriversibility is a problem, use DRO/DRI/DRA conditions as control techniques or multiple baseline designs

Front 511

Alternating Treatments Design

Back 511

- An experimental design in which 2 or more conditions are presented in rapidly alternating succession independent of the level of responding and the differential effects on the target behavior are noted

- Compares 2 or more IVs to one another to see which IV it would be best for you to utilize with your client

- Based on stimulus discrimination

- For each IV, data are plotted separately on the same graph

- IVs may be:

- Alternated across daily sessions

- Given in sessions occurring the same day

- Implemented during each portion of the same session

Front 512

Prediction, Verification, and Replication (PVR) in the Alternating Treatments Design

Back 512

- On Graphs

- Visual inspection of the differences between or among the data paths produced by each treatment

- Functional relation shown when:

- One data path is consistently higher than the other

- No overlapping data paths

- The degree of differential effects produced by 2 different treatments is determined by the vertical distance between the respective data paths

- Prediction, Replication, and Verification:

- Not identified in separate phases of the design

- Each successive data point in treatment plays all 3 roles

Front 513

3 Variations of Alternating Treatments Design

Back 513

1. Single Phase Without Baseline: Does not require an initial baseline

2. With Baseline: Whenever possible, baseline should be conducted, as it shows the change produced by each treatment compared to the natural level of performance without an intervention

3. With Baseline and Final Best Treatment Phase: Most widely used

Front 514

3 Problems Avoided by Alternating Treatments Design

Back 514

1. Irreversibility

2. Sequence Effects

3. Unstable Data

Front 515

Advantages of Alternating Treatments Design

Back 515

- Does not require treatment withdrawal

- Speedy comparison

- Minimizes irreversibility problem

- Minimizes sequence effects

- Can be used with unstable data

- Can be used to assess generalization of effects

- Intervention can begin immediately without baseline data

Front 516

Disadvantages of Alternating Treatments Design

Back 516

- Multiple Treatment Interference: This is always a problem with this design, as multiple treatments are going on at the same time

- Unnatural nature of rapidly alternating treatments

- Limited capacity of the design

- Selection of Treatments: Should be significantly different from one another

Front 517

Withdrawal Design

Back 517

- Some authors use the term, WITHDRAWAL design, to describe experiments based on A-B-A-B analysis and reserve the term REVERSAL design for studies in which the behavioral focus of the treatment variables is reversed, as in the DRO/DRI/DRA reversal techniques

- A term used by some authors as a synonym for A-B-A-B design; also used to describe experiments in which an effective treatment is sequentially or partially withdrawn to promote the maintenance of behavior changes

- However, REVERSAL DESIGN, as the term is used most often in the literature, encompasses both withdrawals and reversals of the IV, signifying the researcher's attempt to demonstrate behavioral reversibility

Front 518

Other Larger Concerns About Single- Case Designs

Back 518

- The range of questions about intervention effects that can be addressed with these designs:

- Single-subject designs: BEST for treatment package evaluation

- The generality of the research results:

- Is the finding generalized beyond the subject in the design?

- To assess generality, use replication of your IV across subjects, etc.

Front 519

What Are The 2 Types of Validity in Experimental Designs?

Back 519

1. Internal Validity

2. External Validity

Front 520

Internal Validity

Back 520

- The extent to which an experiment shows convincingly that changes in behavior are a function of the IV and not the result of uncontrolled or unknown variables

- An internally valid study involves only 1 IV at a time. Multiple IVs are not confounded. This is the best way to see the effect of the IV on the DV.

- High internal validity = Designs showing strong experimental control

Front 521

What Are The 4 Confounding Threats to Internal Validity?

Back 521

1. Measurement Confounds

2. IV Confounds

3. Subject Confounds

4. Setting Confounds

Front 522

Measurement Confounds

Back 522

Refers to the number and the intricacy of the behaviors you are targeting. If you are targeting numerous complicated behaviors, your internal validity may be affected.

Front 523

Measurement Confounds May Occur Due To

Back 523

- Observer Drift

- Reactivity

- Observer Bias

Front 524

Observer Drift

Back 524

When observers unknowingly alter the way they apply a measurement system

Front 525

Reactivity

Back 525

This can refer to the behavior of our clients changing when observed. It can also refer to observers being affected by their data being monitored

- How to reduce reactivity = Maintain baseline conditions long enough to run their course and for stable responding to be obtained

Front 526

Observer Bias

Back 526

The observer's expectations that change will follow a particular direction

- How to reduce observer bias = keep observers naive to expected outcomes of a study

Front 527

IV Confounds

Back 527

- IVs are complicated together usually in a treatment package

- How to reduce IV Confounds = Placebo control or double-blind control procedures (in which the subject is not aware if the IV is present or not)

Front 528

Subject Confounds

Back 528

- Maturation: changes in subject over course of study

- Repeated measurement detects uncontrolled variables

Front 529

Setting Confounds

Back 529

- Studies in natural settings are more prone to confounding variables than in controlled laboratories

- You should hold all possible aspects of the study constant until repeated measurements again reveal stable responding

- Bootleg reinforcement may also occur in the natural environment

Front 530

Confounding Variables

Back 530

- Generally, these terms are used as AKAs to refer to variables that exert an uncontrolled influence on a research study

- However, sometimes there is a distinction between the terms "confounding variable" and "extraneous variable"

- The effects of all these variables should be reduced or eliminated as much as possible in order to demonstrate experimental control

Front 531

Extraneous Variable

Back 531

Any aspect of the environment that must be held constant to prevent unplanned environmental variation

Front 532

Confounding Variables

Back 532

Any uncontrolled factor known or suspected to exert influence on the dependent variable

Front 533

External Validity

Back 533

- Degree to which a study's results are generalizable to other subjects, settings, and/or behaviors

- Degree to which a functional relation discovered in a study will hold under different conditions

- External validity is on a spectrum ranging from a little to a lot

- Replication establishes external validity

Front 534

What Are The 2 Major Types of Scientific Replication Methods used in ABA?

Back 534

- Direct Replication

- Systematic Replication

Front 535

Direct Replication

Back 535

- Researcher exactly duplicates a previous study

- Intrasubject direct replication = same subject used

- Intersubject direct replication = different subject used

Front 536

Systematic Replication

Back 536

- Researcher purposefully varies one or more aspects of an earlier experiment

- Demonstrates reliability and external validity by showing the same effect can occur under different conditions

- ABA research generally uses systematic replication

Front 537

Treatment Integrity

Back 537

- Extent to which the IV is implemented or carried out as planned

- Low treatment integrity: Very difficult to interpret experimental results

Front 538

Treatment Drift

Back 538

When application of the IV in later phases differs from the original application

Front 539

How Do You Ensure a High Level of Treatment Integrity?

Back 539

- Precise operation definition of treatment procedures

- Simplify, standardize, and automate, as simple treatments are more likely to be consistently delivered and simple, easy-to-implement techniques are more likely to be used and socially validated

- Training and practice for individuals who will conduct the experimental sessions

Front 540

How Do You Assess Treatment Integrity?

Back 540

- Collect treatment integrity data to measure how the actual implementation of the conditions matches the written methods

- Observation and calibration give the researcher the ongoing ability to use retraining and practice to ensure high treatment integrity

- Reduce, eliminate, or identify the influence of potential confounding variable

Front 541

What are the 2 Types of Errors in Evaluating ABA Research?

Back 541

1. Type I Error (False Positive): Assuming the IV affected the DV, when it actually did NOT do so

2. Type II Error (False Negative): Assuming the IV did NOT affect the DV, when it actually did

- visual anaylsis used in ABA studies tend to lead to more Type II errors

Front 542

What Are the 3 Dimensional Quantities?

Back 542

1. Repeatability

2. Temporal Extent

3. Temporal Locus

Front 543

Repeatability

Back 543

- When behavior can be counted

- Instances of a response class occur repeatedly through time

Front 544

What Are the 3 Types of Repeatability Measures?

Back 544

1. Count

2. Rate

3. Celeration

Front 545

Count

Back 545

- Formula: add up the behaviors or items

- On its own, count does NOT give us enough information to make decisions regarding a client's behavior intervention program

- Most useful when observation time is constant across observations

Front 546

Rate

Back 546

- Formula: add up the behaviors or items over time

- In other words, count/time

- The most popular data methods used in ABA

- Rate/frequency is usually reported (per second, per minute, per day, per week, per month, per year)

- Report the UNIT OF TIME in your rate measure

- The unit of time must be standard within the study

- If the units of time are NOT standard, you cannot compare data successfully

Front 547

When Do You Use Rate?

Back 547

You are recording free operants

Front 548

Free Operants

Back 548

Behaviors that have discrete beginning and ending points

Front 549

When Do You NOT Use Rate?

Back 549

- You are recording behaviors that occur only within limited or restricted conditions. These are the opposite of free operants.

- You are measuring continuous behaviors that occur for extended periods of time

Front 550

Celeration

Back 550

- Formula: count per unit of time/time

- This is the same thing as saying: Frequency/time

- Measure of how rates of response change over time

- Celeration can mean accelerate or decelerate

- A minimum of 7 measures of rate is recommended for celeration

- Response rate is displayed on the vertical (y) axis

- Time in days (calendar) is displayed on the horizontal (x) axis

- Celeration Trend Line

Front 551

Accelerate

Back 551

Rates of response accelerate when responding is faster over time

Front 552

Decelerate

Back 552

Rates of response decelerate when responding slows over time

Front 553

Celeration Trend Line

Back 553

A straight line drawn through the graphed data representing the direction and degree of the trend

Front 554

Temporal Extent

Back 554

- When the duration of behavior can be measured

- Every instance of behavior occurs during some amount of time

- Only 1 Type of Temporal Extent Measure: Duration

Front 555

Use Duration When

Back 555

- You want to measure the amount of time of a behavior

- For behaviors that occur for too long a period of time or too short a period of time

- High rate behavior

Front 556

What Are The 2 Methods for Calculating Duration?

Back 556

1. Total Duration Per Session

2. Duration- Per- Occurrence

Front 557

Total Duration Per Session

Back 557

Cumulative amount of time a person engages in the target behavior in the total session

Front 558

Duration-Per-Occurrences

Back 558

Duration of time that each instance of the behavior occurs

Front 559

Temporal Locus

Back 559

- Measuring the time at which behavior occurs

- Locus = point in time

- Temporal locus examines when an instance of behavior occurs with respect to other events

Front 560

What are the 2 Types of Temporal Locus Measures?

Back 560

Response Latency

Interresponse Time (IRT)

Front 561

Response Latency

Back 561

Time between onset of a stimulus and initiation of a response

- Latency should be used when one wants to measure how much time occurs between an opportunity to emit a behavior and when the behavior is initiated

Front 562

Interresponse Time (IRT)

Back 562

Amount of time that elapses between 2 consecutive instances of a response class

- IRT should be used when time between responses is important

- Often reported by mean or median and range of IRTs per session

- Functionally related to rate of response

Front 563

What are the 2 Derivative Measures?

Back 563

1. Percentage

2. Trials-to-Criterion

Front 564

Percentage

Back 564

- Ratio formed by combining the same dimensional quantities, such as count

- Expresses the proportional quantity of some event in terms of the number of times the event occurred per 100 opportunities that the event could have occurred

- Recommended minimum observation intervals or response opportunities = 30

- It is not correct to claim improvement over 100% occurred

Front 565

What Are the Advantages of Percentage?

Back 565

- Used when one wants to document percentage of correct responses

Front 566

What Are the Disadvantages of Percentage?

Back 566

- Percentage does NOT have a dimensional value

- Percentage imposes lower and upper limits on the data

- One cannot use percentage to record proficiency or fluency

Front 567

Trials-to-Criterion

Back 567

- A measure of the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance criteria

- A trial depends on the nature of the target behavior and the desired performance level

- Often used to compare the relative efficiency of 2 or more treatments

- Useful for assessing a learner's increasing competence in acquiring a related class of concepts

- Can Use: count, rate, duration, and latency measures to determine trials-to-criterion data

Front 568

What Do You Use Trials-to-Criterion For?

Back 568

Skills such as shoe tying, as each opportunity to tie the shoe can be considered a trial, and trials-to-criterion data are reported as the number of trials required for the learner to tie a shoe correctly.

Front 569

What are the 2 Definitional Measures?

Back 569

1. Typography

2. Magnitude

Front 570

Topography

Back 570

- Form or shape of the response

- Topography should be used when the form of the behavior is critical

- Malleable dimension of behavior = Responses of varying form are shaped and selected by their consequences

- Topography does not equal Function. Topographies can be different, but still have same function

Front 571

Magnitude

Back 571

- Force/ intensity/ severity of a behavior

- Certain responses need to be emitted at specific levels of intensity

Front 572

Continuous Measurement Procedures

Back 572

Measurement conducted in a manner such that ALL instances of the response class of interest are detected during the observation period

Front 573

Advantages of Continuous Measurement Procedures

Back 573

Useful for behaviors:

- Are free operant

- Have a discrete beginning and ending

- Require minimal displacement of the organism in the time/space

- Can be emitted at any time

- Do not require much time for completion

Front 574

Disadvantages of Continuous Measurement Procedures

Back 574

Not useful for behaviors that

- Occur at high rates

- Are measured via discrete trials

- Occur for extended periods of time

- Are opportunity-based

Front 575

Discontinuous Measurement Procedures

Back 575

Measurement conducted in a manner such that some instances of the response class of interest may NOT be detected

Front 576

Advantages of Discontinuous Measurement Procedures

Back 576

Useful for behaviors that

- Occur at high rates

- Occur for long durations of time

- Are measured via discrete trials

- Are measured via percentage

Front 577

Disadvantages of Disconitnuous Measurement

Back 577

Not useful for behaviors that:

- Are free operant

- It is important to obtain every occurrence of that behavior

- Require constant attending by observer

Front 578

What are the 3 Procedures for Measuring Behavior?

Back 578

1. Event Recording: Continuous Measurement Procedure

2. Timing: Continuous Measurement Procedure

3. Time Sampling: DIScontinuous Measurement Procedure

Front 579

Event Recording

Back 579

- Methods to record the number of times a response occurs

- Choose an Event Recording Device: Pencil and paper, wrist counters, hand tally, digital counters, masking tape, pennies, buttons, calculators, etc.

Front 580

Advantages of Event Recording

Back 580

- Fairly accurate method

- Simple to implement; you can do this while engaging in other activities

- Great to use with free operant behaviors

Front 581

Disadvantages of Event Recording

Back 581

DO NOT USE EVENT RECORDING WHEN responses occur at very high rates, continuous behaviors, and/or DTT data

Front 582

Timing

Back 582

Used to measure:

- Duration

- Response Latency

- Interresponse Time (IRT)

Timing Device: stopwatch

Front 583

Time Sampling

Back 583

- Variety of methods for recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments in time

- Time sampling methods give us an approximation of the actual instances of behavior

Front 584

How do you design and implement time sampling procedures?

Back 584

First, divide the observation period into equal intervals of time

Next, record the presence or absence of behavior within or at the end of each interval.

Front 585

Advantages of Time Sampling

Back 585

Great for recording continuous and/or high rate behavior

Front 586

Disadvantages of Time Sampling

Back 586

Do NOT use when you want to record certain important, but fairly infrequent behaviors

Front 587

Continuous Behaviors

VS.

Continuous Measurement Procedures

Back 587

Continuous Behaviors: behaviors that do NOT have a clear beginning and ending

- Counting each response or measuring its duration would be too hard

- For continuous behaviors, you should use a discontinuous measurement procedure! Like one of the time sampling/interval recording methods

VS.

Continuous Measurement Procedures: measurement conducted in a manner such that all instances of the response class of interest are detected during the observation perio

Front 588

What are the 3 Forms of Time Sampling?

Back 588

1. Whole Interval Recording

2. Partial Interval Recording

3. Momentary Time Sampling

All 3 methods are used for:

- Continuous behavior

- High rate behavior, meaning it is difficult to distinguish one response from another

Front 589

Whole Interval Recording

Back 589

A time sampling method for measuring behavior in which the observation period is divided into a series of brief time interval. At the end of each interval, the observer records whether the target behavior occurred throughout the entire interval; tends to underestimate the proportion of the observation period that many behaviors actually occurred

Front 590

How Do You Design and Implement Whole Interval Recording?

Back 590

- Divide the observation period into a series of brief intervals

- At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred throughout the interval

- Reporting data: Always percentage! You record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred

Front 591

What Are The Advantages of Whole Interval Recording?

Back 591

- Best for measuring a behavior you want to increase

- Why? Because if you want to increase a behavior, you want to select the more conservative time sampling method, which is whole interval

Front 592

What Are the Disadvantages of Whole Interval Recording?

Back 592

- Not good to use when you decrease behavior

- You are required to observe the target behavior throughout the entire interval

Front 593

Partial Interval Recording

Back 593

A time sampling method for measuring in which the observation period is divided into a series of brief time intervals. The observer records whether the target behavior occurred at any time during the interval. Partial-interval recording is not concerned with how many times the behavior occurred during the interval or how long the behavior was present, just that it occurred at some point during the interval; tends to overestimate the proportion of the observation period that the behavior actually occurred

Front 594

How to Design and Implement Partial Interval Recording

Back 594

- Divide the observation period into a series of brief time intervals

- At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred at any time during the interval

- Reporting data: always percentage! You record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred

Used to represent the proportion % of the entire observation period that the behavior occurred

Front 595

What Are the Advantages of Partial Interval Recording?

Back 595

- Easy to measure multiple behaviors concurrently

- Best for measuring a behavior you want to DECREASE

- Why? Because if you want to decrease a behavior, you want to select the more conservative time sampling method, which is partial interval

Front 596

What Are the Disadvantages of Partial Interval Recording?

Back 596

- Not good to use when you want to increase behavior

- Must observe the target behavior throughout the entire interval

Front 597

Momentary Time Sampling

Back 597

A measurement method in which the presence or absence of behaviors are recorded at precisely specified time intervals

Front 598

How Do You Design and Implement Momentary Time Sampling?

Back 598

- Divide the observation period into a series of brief time intervals

- At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred at that time interval only

- Reporting data: Always Percentages! You record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred

Used to estimate the proportion of the total observation period that the behavior occurred

Front 599

What Are the Advantages of Momentary Time Sampling?

Back 599

You do NOT have to continuously measure throughout the entire interval (as you would have in whole and partial interval procedures)

Front 600

What Are the Disadvantages of Momentary Time Sampling?

Back 600

- Much of the behavior of interest is missed or unaccounted

- To avoid this problem, you should keep the intervals short and observe the target behavior frequently

Front 601

Planned Activity Check

Back 601

- For Groups

- A variation of Momentary Time Sampling

Front 602

Permanent Product

Back 602

- Measuring behavior after it has occurred by measuring the effects the behavior produced on the environment

- A change in the environment produced by a behavior that lasts long enough for measurement to take place

- Ex Post Facto Measurement

- Natural or contrived outcomes

- Event recording, timing, and time sampling can be applied to measurement by permanent product

- Behaviors that do NOT have a direct effect on the environment can be measured by permanent product through using videotape, photographs, audiotapes, etc. The are contrived permanent products.

Front 603

Ex Post Facto Measurement

Back 603

Measurement takes place after behavior has occurred

Front 604

Advantages of Permanent Product

Back 604

- Practitioner is free to do other tasks

- Makes inconveniently timed behaviors easier to observe

- Measurement may be more accurate, complete, and continuous

- Facilitates data collection for IOA and treatment integrity

- Enables data collection for behaviors with multiple response classes

- Reduces any potential reactivity because the observer does not have to sit and watch the client engage in the target behavior, but simply can look at the permanent product after the client has completed the required task

Front 605

Disadvantages of Permanent Product

Back 605

The response accountable for producing a particular outcome may vary

Front 606

Selecting the Right Measurement System to Obtain Representative Data Given the Dimensions of the Behavior

Back 606

- Some classes of a behavior lend themselves to one system of recording; other to another

- You should select a way to record data that provides the most ethical and valid depiction of the target behavior

- Behavior results in tangible product? Counting or permanent product are great to use

- Behavior is transitory? Event recording or time sampling may be better

Front 607

3 Indicators of Trustworthy Measurements

Back 607

1. Validity

2. Accuracy

3. Reliability

Front 608

Validity

Back 608

3 Elements:

1. Directly measuring socially significant target behavior

2. Measuring Dimension of the target behavior relevant to the question or concern about the behavior

3. Ensuring that the data are representative of the behavior's occurrence under conditions during TIMES that are most relevant to the concern about the behavior

- If any of these above elements are lacking even if data seems valid and reliable, the validity of the resultant data are compromised, even meaningless

- Measurement has validity when it yields data that are directly relevant to the phenomenon measured and to the reasons for measuring it

Front 609

What are the 3 Threats to Measurement Validity

Back 609

1. Indirect Measurement

2. Measuring the Wrong Dimension of the Target Behavior

3. Measurement Artifacts

Front 610

Indirect Measurement (Threats to Validity)

Back 610

- Secondhand or filtered information

- Researcher measures a proxy, or stand-in, for the actual behavior of interest

- Useful when there is no direct access to the behavior of interest

- Sometimes used to make inferences about private events

- When using indirect measurement, it is the responsibility of the researcher to provide evidence that the event measured directly reflects, in some reliable and meaningful way, something about the behavior for which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions

- Direct measures of target behaviors will always have more validity than indirect measures

Front 611

Measuring the Wrong Dimension of the Target Behavior (Threats to Validity)

Back 611

More threatening to validity than indirect measurement

Front 612

Accuracy

Back 612

- The extent to which the observed value matches the true value of an event

- For something to be considered a true value requires special or extraordinary precautions that ensure that all possible sources of error have been removed

- If measurement is not valid, accuracy is questionable

Front 613

How to Establish True Values for Accuracy Measures

Back 613

- Because you need to compare observed values to true values, your process to determine true values must be different than the measurement procedures used to obtain the observed values

- When true values cannot be established, researchers must rely on reliability assessments and measure of interobserver agreement (IOA) to evaluate the quality of their data

Front 614

Reliability

Back 614

- The extent to which a measurement procedure yields the same value when brought into repeated contact with the same state of nature

- Same results repeatedly

- Poor reliability reveals problems with accuracy

- Consistent measurement

- The closer the values obtained by repeated measurement, the more reliable they are

- If a measure is NOT reliable, it cannot be valid

- Yet even if the measures are found to be reliable, that doesn't necessarily mean they will also be valid

Front 615

Threats to Measurement Accuracy and Reliability

Back 615

- Human Error: biggest threat to the accuracy and reliability of data

- In ABA, mostly human observers measure behaviors

Front 616

What are the Factors that Contribute to Human Measurement Error?

Back 616

- Poorly Designed measurement systems

- Inadequate observer training

- Expectations about what the data should look like

Front 617

Poorly Designed Measurement Systems

Back 617

- Difficult and cumbersome measurement systems

- Number of participants to observe, number of behaviors to record, duration of observation period, and/or duration of observation intervals

- Simplified systems minimize errors

Front 618

Inadequate Observer Training

Back 618

Observers need explicit and systematic training:

1. Select observers carefully

2. Train observers to a standard of competency

3. Provide ongoing training to minimize observer drift

Front 619

Observer Drift

Back 619

- When observers unknowingly alter the way they measure a behavior

- Unintended changes in the way data are collected may produce measurement error

- Occurs when observers have a shift in how they interpret the definitions of the target behavior

- The target behavior definitions DRIFT or change over time

- How to Minimize: Retraining observers and providing detailed feedback on the accuracy and reliability of measurement

Front 620

Measurement Bias

Back 620

- Nonrandom Measurement error

- Errors in measurement likely to be in one direction

- Data that overestimates or underestimates the true value of an event

- Expectations that a target behavior will occur under certain conditions or change with a certain treatment can influence what is recorded and threaten the accuracy of measurement

- Naive Observers

- Observer Reactivity

- How to minimize: monitor and record data unobtrusively. Use videotaping for second observer to observe the same session

Front 621

Naive Observers

Back 621

Minimizes measurement bias. Trained observer who is unaware of the study's purpose and/or experimental conditions in effect

Front 622

Observer Reactivity

Back 622

Measurement error resulting from an observer's knowledge that others are evaluating the data he/she reports. An observer can be influenced by how he/she anticipates another observer will record data

Front 623

Interobserver Agreement (IOA)

Back 623

- Refers to the degree to which 2 or more independent observers report the same values after measuring the same events

- Reporting IOA increases believably that the data is trustworthy and deserving of interpretation

Front 624

Benefits and Uses of IAO

Back 624

1. Determines the competence of new observers

2. Detects observer drift

3. Increases or decreases confidence that the definition of the target behavior was clear and the measurement code was not too difficult

4. Gives confidence that variability in data is not a function of which observers were on duty, therefore implying that changes in data actually reflect changes in behavior

Front 625

What are the 4 Event Recording IOAs?

Back 625

1. Total Count IOA

2. Mean Count-per-Interval IOA

3. Exact Count-per-Interval IOA

4. Trial-by-Trial IOA

Front 626

Total Count IOA

Back 626

- Simplest method for event recording

- Percentage of agreement between the total number of responses recorded by 2 observers

- Calculated by dividing the smaller of the counts by the larger count and multiplying by 100

- Overestimates the extent of actual agreement

- For more specific IOA, especially in DTT, use Trial-to-Trial IOA

Front 627

What is the Formula for Trial Count IOA?

Back 627

Smaller # X 100%

-----------------

Larger #

Front 628

Mean Count-per-Interval IOA

Back 628

- Dividing the observation period into a series of smaller counting times

- Observers record the number of occurrences of the behavior within each interval

- Calculate the agreement between the count of the 2 observers within each interval

- Use the agreements per interval as the basis for calculating the IOA for the total observation period

Front 629

Exact Count-per-Interval IOA

Back 629

- The percentage of intervals in which 2 observers recorded the same count

- The most strict event recording IOA method

Front 630

What is the Formula for Count-per-Interval IOA?

Back 630

# of Intervals of 100% IOA Agreement X 100%

-------------------------------------------------------

Total # of Intervals

Front 631

Trial-by-Trial IOA

Back 631

The agreement between 2 observers who measured the occurrence or nonoccurrence of discrete trial behaviors for which the count for each trial, or response opportunity, can only be 0 or 1 can be calculated by comparing the observers' total counts or by comparing their counts on a trial-by-trial basis

Front 632

What is the Formula for Trial-by-Trial IOA?

Back 632

# of Trials of Agreement X 100

------------------------------------

Total # of Trials

Front 633

What are the 2 Timing/Duration IOAs?

Back 633

1. Total Duration IOA

2. Mean Duration-Per-Occurrence IOA

Front 634

Total Duration IOA

Back 634

Computed by dividing the shorter of the 2 durations reported by the 2 observers by the longer duration and multiplying by 100%

Front 635

What is the Formula for Total Duration IOA?

Back 635

Shorter Duration X 100%

-------------------------

Longer Duration

Front 636

Mean Duration (or IRT)-Per-Occurrence IOA

Back 636

- Used to calculate duration-per-occurrence data

- A more conservative and usually more meaningful assessment of IOA than total duration data

- This formula can also be used to compute the mean latency-per-response IOA or mean IRT-per-response IOA

Front 637

What is the Formula for the Mean Duration (or IRT)-Per-Occurrence IOA?

Back 637

Duration IOA B1 + Duration IOA B2 + Duration IOA Bn

-------------------------------------------------------------------

n Behaviors with Duration IOA

Front 638

What are the 3 Time Sampling/Interval Recording IOAs?

Back 638

1. Interval-by-Interval IOA

2. Scored Interval IOA

3. Unscored Interval IOA

Front 639

Interval-by-Interval IOA

Back 639

- The primary observer's data for each interval is matched to the secondary observer's data for the same interval

- Likely to overestimate the actual agreement measuring behaviors that occur at very high or very low rates

- Subject to random or accidental agreement between observers

Front 640

What is the Formula for Interval-by-Interval IOA?

Back 640

# of Intervals Both Recorders are in Agreement X 100%

----------------------------------------------------------------------

Total # of Intervals

Front 641

Scored Interval IOA

Back 641

- Only uses intervals in which both observers scored an occurrence of the behavior to calculate the IOA

- Minimizes the effects of chance agreements for interval data on behavior that occur at very high or very low rates because it ignores the intervals in which measure by chance is highly likely

- Recommended for behaviors that occur at frequencies of approximately 30% or fewer of intervals to avoid over inflated and possibly misleading IOA measures

Front 642

What is the Formula for Scored Interval IOA?

Back 642

# of Intervals Both Recorders Recorded Occurrence X 100%

-----------------------------------------------------------

# of Intervals AT LEAST ONE Recorder Recorded Occurrence

Front 643

Unscored Interval IOA

Back 643

- Minimizes the effects of chance agreements for interval data on behavior that occur at very high or very low rates

- Only considers intervals in which either or both observers recorded a non-occurrence of behavior

Front 644

What is the Formula for Unscored Interval IOA?

Back 644

# of Intervals Both Recorders Non-Recorded Occurrence X 100%

-----------------------------------------------------------

# of Intervals AT LEAST ONE Recorder Recorded Occurrence

Front 645

How Often and When Should IOA Be Obtained?

Back 645

- During each phase of a study and should be distributed across days of the week, times of day, settings, and observers

- Should be obtained for a minimum of 20% of sessions

Front 646

How Should IOA Be Reported?

Back 646

1. Narrative Description: Most common and simplest. You can describe the mean and range of agreement percentages

2. Table

3. Graphic Display: The visual of the graph provides extent between agreement and existence of observer drift

Front 647

What are Acceptable IOA Scores?

Back 647

The closer to 100% the better. No less than 80%.

Front 648

Data

Back 648

- Medium with which the behavior analyst works

- Results of Measurement

- Empirical basis for decision-making

- It is difficult to assess what is happening with the target you are trying to measure if you only look at raw data

Front 649

Graphs

Back 649

- Visual format for displaying data

- Reveals relations among and between a series of measurements and relevant variables

- Helps people make sense of quantitative information

- How behavior analysts organize, store, interpret, and communicate the results of our work

Front 650

What are the 3 Purposes of Graphs?

Back 650

1. Communicate: Communicates our data

2. Assess: Helps us to assess data correctly

3. I/D -IV/DV: Shows how the DV and IV are related to one another

Front 651

What are the 5 Benefits of Graphs?

Back 651

1. Gives you an immediate picture of an individuals behavior

2. Allows you to explore interesting variations in behavior as they are occurring

3. Acts as a judgmental aid to help you interpret the results of a study or treatment

4. Acts as a conservative method for determining the significance of behavior change, because a behavior change that is statistically significant may not look impressive on a graph

5. Allows for an independent judgement and evaluation of the data

Front 652

What are the 5 Types of ABA Graphs?

Back 652

1. Line

2. Bar

3. Cumulative Record

4. Scatter Plot

5. Standard Celeration (Semilogarithmic Chart)

Front 653

Equal-Interval Graphs

Back 653

- Graphs in which the distance between any 2 consecutive points on both the X-Axis and Y-Axis is always the same

- All intervals are the same size

Front 654

What are the Equal-Interval Graphs?

Back 654

- Line Graphs

- Bar graphs

- Cumulative Records

- Scatter Plots

Front 655

What are the Non-Equal Interval Graphs?

Back 655

Logarithmic scales, including semi-logarithmic scales, one if which is the standard celeration chart, look at behavior change through proportionate or relative change

Front 656

Line Graphs

Back 656

- Most common graphs in ABA

- Based on the Cartesian Plane

- Use a balanced ratio between the height and width of the axes

- Y-axis should be shorter than x-axis

- Each point on a line graph shows the level of some quantifiable dimension of the DV in relation to the IV in effect when the data was recorded

- Comparing data points lets us examine level, trend, and variability

- Use line graphs when you want your data to effectively communicate the following relevant quantitative relations: Data that can be scaled along some dimension, sch as time or the order of responses in a sequence

Front 657

Cartesian Plane

Back 657

2-Dimensional area formed by 2 perpendicular lines that intersect

Front 658

What are the 7 Parts of a Line Graph?

Back 658

1. Horizontal Axis

2. Vertical Axis

3. Condition Change Lines

4. Condition Labels

5. Data Points

6. Data Path

7. Figure Caption

Front 659

Horizontal Axis (Line Graph)

Back 659

- Represents passage of time and the presence, absence, or value of the IV

- Left to right passing of time in equal intervals

- Tic marks are placed on the x-axis with equal spacing between them

- Utilize a scale break to represent discontinuities in time

Front 660

Vertical Axis (Line Graph)

Back 660

- Represents the full range of values of the DV

- On an equal-interval graph, the scaling of this axis is really important to see changes in the level, trend and variability in the data

- Origin: Intersection of the horizontal and vertical axis

- Usually represents the zero value of the DV

- Origin should be marked at zero

Front 661

Condition Change Lines (Line Graph)

Back 661

- Vertical Lines drawn upward from x-axis to show points in time at which changes in the IV occurred

- Solid Lines = Major Changes

- Dashed Lines = Minor Changes

Front 662

Condition Labels

Back 662

A label, written at the top and parallel to the x-axis, that describes experimental conditions in effect during each phase of research

Front 663

Data Points

Back 663

- Each data point on graph has two meanings

1. A quantifiable measure of the target behavior recorded during a given observation period

2. The time and/or experimental conditions under which that particular measurement was conducted

- If there is more than 1 set of data on the graph, different symbols are used to show this. Do NOT use colors on a graph in ABA/

- Coordinates of a data point in graphs are always displayed as (x, y)

Front 664

Data Path

Back 664

- Connects successive data points with a straight line. Illustrates level and trend of behavior between 2 consecutive data points

- The data path should be examined to interpret graphs

- Maximum of 4 different data paths can be displayed effectively on 1 set of axes

Front 665

Figure Caption

Back 665

- Concise statemetn that provides information to identify the IV and DV. Also explains symbols used and unplanned events

- Printed below graph

Front 666

When Should Data Points Not be Connected in A Line Graph?

Back 666

Data points are NOT connected in a line graph if:

a. Data points fall on either side of a condition change line

b. Time has passed and the behavior was not measured

c. There was a discontinuity in time on the x-axis

d. Data were not collected, lost, etc.

e. It is follow-up or post-check data

Front 667

Line Graph Variations

Back 667

- Line graphs can be very complicated, especially when multiple data paths are represented

- Examples of line graphs that are more complex than what we typically may utilize

- 2 or more Dimensions of the Same behavior

- 2 or more different Behaviors

- Measure of the same behavior under different conditions

- Changing the values of the IV

- Same behavior of 2 more participants

Front 668

Bar Graphs

Back 668

- Based on the Cartesian Plane, similar to the line graph

- However, there are NO distinct data points representing successive response measures through time

- Does NOT allow for analysis of variability and trend in behavior

- Use bar graphs when you want your data to effectively communicate the following relevant quantitative relations

1. Displaying separate sets of data that ARE NOT related to one another

2. Summarizing performance within a condition or a group of individual

Front 669

Cumulative Records

Back 669

A type of graph on which the cumulative number of responses emitted is represented on the vertical axis; the steeper the slope of the data path, the greater the response rate

Front 670

What are the 2 Types of Cumulative Record Response Rates?

Back 670

1. Overall Response Rate

2. Local Response Rate

Front 671

Cumulative Record Response Rates

Back 671

- The steeper the slope, the higher the response rate

- Rate/frequency: number of responses/time

Front 672

Overall Response Rate

Back 672

An average rate of response over a given time period, such as during a specific session or phase in a study

- Calculated by dividing the total # of responses recorded during the period by the # of observation periods indicated on the x-axis

Front 673

Local Response Rate

Back 673

An average rate of response during periods of time smaller than that for which an overall response rate has been given

- Same calculation as overall response rate, but only using a small portion of the data on the graph

Front 674

What Relevant Quantitative Relations Are Effectively Communicated on the Cumulative Record?

Back 674

1. The target behavior can be measured in cumulative units: one look at this cumulative record and you see your data

2. The target behavior only occurs once per observation period

3. The cumulative record shows how rapidly or slowly the target responses are repeated: you can see this by looking at the steepness of the slope. Steeper slope = more rapid response

4. The cumulative record can be used as personal feedback: individuals can use this for looking at their own behaviors in self-management programs

5. The effects of the IV are easier to detect on a cumulative record rather than a noncumulative graph: Cumulative records reveal more intricate details between behavior and environmental variables

Front 675

Semilogarithmic Charts

Back 675

- Logarithmic Scales look at behavior change through proportional or relative change

- X-Axis: in equal intervals (like other graphs)

- Y-Axis: scaled logarithmically

- Semilogarithmic Scale: graphs in which one axis is scaled proportionally

- On a semilogarithmic chart, all behavior changes of equal proportion are shown by equal proportion are shown by equal vertical distances on the vertical axis

- Data that is shown as an exponential curve on an equal interval chart is a straight line on a semilogarithmic chart

Front 676

Standard Celeration Chart

Back 676

A multiply-divide chart with six base-10 cycles on the vertical axis that can accommodate response rates as low as 1 per 24 hours to as high as 1,000 per minute.It enables the standardized charting of celeration, a factor by which rate of behavior multiplies or divides per unit of time

Front 677

What Relevant Quantitative Relations Are Effectively Communicated on the Standard Celeration chart?

Back 677

Primarily when you your concern is promoting rate of responding

- Rate of responding is really important because research shows that the more rapid and fluent the rate of correct responding, the more durable the learning

Front 678

Scatter Plots

Back 678

- Show relative distribution of individual measures in a data set

- Data points are unconnected

- Depict changes in value on one axis correlated with changes in value on the other axis

- One variable is plotted on the y-axis and a second variable is plotted on the x-axis

- Use scatter plots when you want your data to effectively communicate the following relevant quantitative relations:

- The temporal distribution of the behavior

- The grouping of the individual data points may help to identify elusive environmental stimuli

Front 679

What are the 3 Fundamental Properties of Behavior Change?

Back 679

1. Level

2. Trend

3. Variability

Front 680

Level

Back 680

- Value on the vertical axis around which a series of data measures converge

- A change in level is illustrated when the data's average value changes

- An analysis of level answers the question, "how much has the behavior changed?"

- Levels in your data are examined by looking at your data's mean, median, and/or range

Front 681

Mean Level Line

Back 681

Horizontal line drawn through the data points on the vertical axis equaling the average or mean value of the data

- Use with caution because it can obscure important variability

- Adds an easy-to-see summary of average performance

Front 682

Median Level Line

Back 682

Horizontal line drawn through the data points on the vertical axis that shows the most typical performance within a condition

- Better than the mean level line when your data has extreme outliers, either high or low

Front 683

Trend

Back 683

The overall direction taken bay a data path. It is described in terms of direction (increasing, decreasing or zero trend), degree (gradual or steep), and the extent of variability of data points around the trend. Trend is used in predicting future measures of the behavior under unchanging conditions.

Front 684

What Are The 6 Steps in a Split-Middle Line of Progress?

Back 684

1. Count

2. Divide

3. Mid: Mid-Rate

4. Mid: Mid-Date

5. Quarter: Quarterly- Intersect Line of Progress

6. Split: Split-Middle Line of Progress

Front 685

Count

Back 685

Looking at a graph full of data points, COUNT how many data points are on the graph

Front 686

Divide

Back 686

Draw a vertical line to divide the number of data points in half. If uneven number of data points, the dividing vertical line is going to be through one of the data points

Front 687

Mid: Mid-Rate

Back 687

For each half of the data, find the middle point (up to down). Mid-Rates are the middle values on the y-axis for each half on the data series. If there are an even number of data points on each half, use the mean of the two middle-most points as the mid-rate.

Front 688

Mid: Mid-Date

Back 688

For each half of the data, find the middle points (left to right)

Front 689

Quarter: Quarterly Intersect Line of Progress

Back 689

Connect the 2 mid-date and mid-rate points of intersectio

Front 690

Split: Split- Middle Line of Progress

Back 690

Shift the quarterly-intersect line up or down (keeping it parallel to itself) so that an equal number of points fall above and below it. In the graph above, there are an equal number of data points that fall above and below the line, so there is NO NEED to shift the line for any reason. The trend line will ALWAYS have an equal number of data points that fall above and below the line

Front 691

Variability

Back 691

- The extent to which the data "bounce around" on the graph

- An analysis of variability answers the question, "how consistent is the change that is taking place?"

- Frequency and degree to which multiple measures of behavior yield different outcomes

- High degree of variability = little or no control over the factors influencing behavior

Front 692

Visual Analysis of Temporal Relations of Data WITHIN Conditions

Back 692

Examining the data within each condition, determine the level, trend, and/or variability in each condition

Front 693

Visual Analysis of Temporal Relations of Data BETWEEN Conditons

Back 693

Comparing the data in the different conditions, determine whether change in level, trend, and/or variability occurred and to what extent any changes were significant