Basic Chemistry Review For Human Anatomy & Physiology

Front 1

Matter

Back 1

The "stuff" of the universe; matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
[Personally, I know of no matter that has mass and does not occupy space! Do you? :-) ]

Front 2

Mass

Back 2

Amount of matter present, not gravity-dependent, but we frequently speak of "the weight of something" and imply mass. May exist in a solid, liquid, or gaseous state. For practical purposes, we can say weight = mass. Just realize that mass is not dependent on gravity. I’m 100 kilograms on the Earth’s surface and on the Moon’s surface, although I will weigh considerably less than my “Earth weight” while I’m on the moon.

Front 3

Energy

Back 3

The capacity to do work, does not have mass, and takes up no space.

Front 4

Kinetic energy

Back 4

Energy "in action".

Front 5

Potential energy

Back 5

Stored or inactive energy

Front 6

Examples of Kinetic Energy

Back 6

energy, electricity, heat, radiation, an object in motion

Front 7

Potential

Back 7

storage battery, chemical bond energy (as in sugar or gasoline)

Front 8

Interconvertability

Back 8

Energy may be converted from one form to another - most importantly, chemical bond energy captured in food during photosynthesis is the primary energy source in physiological systems.

Front 9

Composition of matter

Back 9

Composed of fundamental substances called ELEMENTS

Front 10

Elements

Back 10

Unique substances not broken down by ordinary chemical methods. In nature, 92 elements; eleven others are man-made; each element has atoms which are unique to only that element.

Front 11

Four main elements...

Back 11

are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O), with about 20 others present in lesser or trace amounts.

Front 12

Atom

Back 12

Basic unit of an element is an ATOM, consisting of a NUCLEUS and ELECTRONS.

Front 13

The ATOMIC NUMBER ...

Back 13

enumerates the number of protons.

Front 14

The ATOMIC MASS NUMBER ...

Back 14

enumerates the mass of the protons plus neutrons.

Front 15

In an electrically neutral atom...

Back 15

the number of protons = the number of electrons = atomic number

Front 16

Nucleus % of total mass of an atom

Back 16

About 99.9% of the total mass of an atom.

Front 17

Proton.

Back 17

Charge of +, atomic mass unit (AMU) of 1, abbreviation is p+ .

Front 18

Neutron.

Back 18

No charge, atomic mass unit of 1, abbreviation is n0.

Front 19

Other particles.

Back 19

For our purposes other nuclear particles are minor.

Front 20

Electrons.

Back 20

About 1/1,800 the mass of either a proton, or neutron, these are outside the atomic nucleus, similar to the planets orbiting the sun. Charge is - (negative).

Front 21

Location. Electrons

Back 21

Electrons spin and orbit the nucleus. At any point in time, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact location of an electron within its "orbital" or "electron cloud", but that level indicates an electron's relative energy state: closer to the nucleus, lower energy; further from the nucleus, a higher energy state.

Front 22

Energy states.

Back 22

Reactive electrons, the VALENCE ELECTRONS, will be donated or shared between atoms. These exchanges are called CHEMICAL BONDS. Electron "orbitals" may hold a maximum, from inside shells to outside shells, of 2-8-18-18-32-18-8 electrons. An atom is most chemically non-reactive if its outer shell is filled. For example, the NOBLE (INERT) gases such as helium, neon, argon, krypton, etc. do not, under usual circumstances, form compounds with anything else because their outer shell is completely filled. See the position of these elements in the periodic table.

Front 23

Chemical properties.

Back 23

The chemical reactivity of atoms is due to the reactive nature of the ELECTRONS to achieve stability.

Front 24

Isotopes.

Back 24

Variants in an atom in which the number of neutrons (and thus the atomic masses) are different. ISOTOPES of an atom have identical chemical properties.

Front 25

Radioisotopes.

Back 25

Energetically unstable isotopes decay, releasing energy, as ALPHA (2P + 2N), BETA (electron-like negative particles), or GAMMA (electromagnetic energy). When used for tracking (tracing) chemical reactions, these are called TRACERS, because they behave like non-radioactive atoms or ions but leave a "trace" of energy behind.

Front 26

Non-radioactive isotopes

Back 26

Not all isotopes of an element are radioactive, but are STABLE and do not readily decay.

Front 27

Chemical bonds types

Back 27

Ionic. Covalent. Hydrogen (bond).

Front 28

Chemical bonds types:
Ionic.

Back 28

Atomic attraction between atoms which have TRANSFERRED electrons between themselves.

Front 29

Chemical bonds types:
Covalent.

Back 29

A sharing of one or more electrons (usually the maximum is four) between atoms.

Front 30

Chemical bonds types:
Hydrogen (bond).

Back 30

One hydrogen atom, already covalently bonded to one electronegative atom (especially nitrogen or oxygen), is attracted by another "electron-hungry" atom and forms a weak bridge between the two molecules. This is found in WATER MOLECULES and explains SURFACE TENSION - we can float a pin on water or actually overfill a glass because of surface tension. Our lungs make a detergent, dipalmitoyl lecithin, to overcome this force and allow easier breathing. Hydrogen bonds form typically between H-O, H-N, and H-P.

Front 31

Ions.

Back 31

Atoms which have lost or gained electrons.

Front 32

Cation.

Back 32

An "atom" with a "+" charge, (remember "ca+ion"), because it has donated one or more electrons. Common physiological cations are H+, K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+. Many are in those periodic table groups called METALS.

Front 33

Anion.

Back 33

An "atom" with a "-" charge, (remember "Negative ~ Anion"), because it has donated accepted one or more electrons. Common physiological anions are Cl-, OH-, PO42-, HCO3-.

Front 34

Atoms vs. ions.

Back 34

An atom and its ion are very different indeed. Chlorine gas, Cl, is deadly, but chloride ions, Cl- are necessary for life!

Front 35

Nonpolar covalent bond.

Back 35

The shared electron spends approximately equal time around the nucleus of each atom. For example, in O2, CH4, CO2

Front 36

Polar covalent bond.

Back 36

The shared electron spends more time around one nucleus than another, thus setting up a partially positively charged end of a molecule (see below) and a partially negative end. For example, H2O. These molecules are called DIPOLES.

Front 37

Molecule.

Back 37

A combination of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds; for example O2, N2, O3.

Front 38

Compound.

Back 38

A combination of two or more DIFFERENT atoms held together by chemical bonds; for example, CO2, H2.O

Front 39

Mixture.

Back 39

A combination of two or more materials physically intermixed. There is no reaction between their electrons. Mixtures may exist as SOLUTIONS, COLLOIDS, or SUSPENSIONS, the main difference being the SIZE OF THE MIXING PARTICLES OR COMPONENTS. The most studied of these, in physiology, is the solution

Front 40

Mixtures may exist as ...

Back 40

SOLUTIONS, COLLOIDS, or SUSPENSIONS, the main difference being the SIZE OF THE MIXING PARTICLES OR COMPONENTS. The most studied of these, in physiology, is the solution

Front 41

Solution.

Back 41

A homogenous mixture of two or more components that may be gases, liquids, or solids.

Front 42

Solution. Examples

Back 42

air (gases in gases), seawater or saline solutions (solids in liquids), and vinegar (a liquid in a liquid)

Front 43

Solvents

Back 43

The substance present in the greatest quantity in a solution.
SOLVENT (=dissolving medium). Solvents are usually liquids and may be polar (water) or non-polar (turpentine).

Front 44

SOLUTES

Back 44

Substances present in lesser amounts are called SOLUTES. Examples are oxygen in water (the solvent), helium in air (the solvent), NaCl in body fluids (the solvent).

Front 45

In TRUE SOLUTIONS...

Back 45

the individual atoms are not visible to the naked eye, the solute does not settle out, and the solution does not scatter light

Front 46

Colloid.

Back 46

A heterogeneous mixture often appearing translucent or milky. Although the particles of solute are larger than those in a true solution, they still do not settle out. However they do scatter light, and the light path through them is visible. Cytoplasm of cell is a colloid. Colloids also can transform from a rather watery state (a SOL) to a more viscous, Jell-O-like state (a GEL).

Front 47

Suspension.

Back 47

A heterogeneous mixture with large visible particles which tend to settle out, such as sand in water. Blood is also a suspension. Mixing, shaking, or circulation keeps the cells suspended. Certain remedies which you must shake before taking, like Milk of Magnesia, are suspensions.

Front 48

Chemical reactions

Back 48

a chemical reaction occurs whenever chemical bonds are FORMED, BROKEN, or REARRANGED.

Front 49

Reactants.

Back 49

The substances which react are called REACTANTS.
Chemical reactions

Front 50

PRODUCT(S)

Back 50

The resulting chemical(s) produced is (are) PRODUCT(S).
Chemical reactions

Front 51

For Example Reactants & Product- Chemical Reactations

Back 51

For example, A + B  C. The reactants, A and B combine chemically to form C. Energy is usually required, many times in the form of heat; ENZYMES, in living systems, assist in the reactions.

Front 52

COFACTORS

Back 52

Sometimes VITAMINS and/or TRACE ELEMENTS participate as COFACTORS.
Chemical Reactions

Front 53

Reaction Types

Back 53

The kinds of reactions possible are SYNTHESIS (COMBINATION), DECOMPOSITION (DEGRADATION), and REARRANGEMENT (EXCHANGE, or DISPLACEMENT).

Front 54

Synthesis.

Back 54

This combination reaction always involves bond FORMATION: A+ B  C These reactions are the basis of ANABOLISM or BUILDING reactions and are most common in rapidly growing tissue such as during embryonic development or in wound repair. Examples are protein synthesis from amino acid subunits and the formation of glycogen from glucose (See below.)

Front 55

Decomposition.

Back 55

This degradation reaction always involves bond BREAKING (essentially the reverse of synthesis reactions). Energy is usually RELEASED. All of these reactions are CATABOLIC. For example, AB  A + B, with a release of energy. The reactions are usually COUPLED or CHAINED together so that: AB  A + B  (energy for .... ) CD  C + D. [We still must add some energy to make it all go.]

Front 56

Exchange.

Back 56

This displacement reaction is a dual reaction: both synthesis and decomposition reactions occur to rearrange parts of the reactant molecule(s), producing different products: AB + C  AC + B or VW + XY  VX + WY A good example for the latter is the formation of glucose-6-phosphate from glucose and ATP. ATP is converted to ADP, but a "high-energy bond" has been attached to glucose. It is this type of reaction that often controls many cell processes; one or both of the products may either negatively feedback (inhibit) the enzyme, or one or both of the products in turn may be a starting reactant in another reaction. If a product is present in low or reduced amounts, it often "pulls" the reaction to the right. If a product is present in high amounts, it often inhibits the left-hand side of the reaction to INHIBIT the overall reaction (called "PRODUCT INHIBITION").

Front 57

Molecule.

Back 57

A combination of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds; for example O2, N2, O3.

Front 58

Compound.

Back 58

A combination of two or more DIFFERENT atoms held together by chemical bonds; for example, CO2, H2.O

Front 59

Mixture.

Back 59

A combination of two or more materials physically intermixed. There is no reaction between their electrons. Mixtures may exist as SOLUTIONS, COLLOIDS, or SUSPENSIONS, the main difference being the SIZE OF THE MIXING PARTICLES OR COMPONENTS. The most studied of these, in physiology, is the solution

Front 60

Mixtures may exist as ...

Back 60

SOLUTIONS, COLLOIDS, or SUSPENSIONS, the main difference being the SIZE OF THE MIXING PARTICLES OR COMPONENTS. The most studied of these, in physiology, is the solution

Front 61

Solution.

Back 61

A homogenous mixture of two or more components that may be gases, liquids, or solids.

Front 62

Solution. Examples

Back 62

air (gases in gases), seawater or saline solutions (solids in liquids), and vinegar (a liquid in a liquid)

Front 63

Solvents

Back 63

The substance present in the greatest quantity in a solution.
SOLVENT (=dissolving medium). Solvents are usually liquids and may be polar (water) or non-polar (turpentine).

Front 64

SOLUTES

Back 64

Substances present in lesser amounts are called SOLUTES. Examples are oxygen in water (the solvent), helium in air (the solvent), NaCl in body fluids (the solvent).

Front 65

In TRUE SOLUTIONS...

Back 65

the individual atoms are not visible to the naked eye, the solute does not settle out, and the solution does not scatter light

Front 66

Colloid.

Back 66

A heterogeneous mixture often appearing translucent or milky. Although the particles of solute are larger than those in a true solution, they still do not settle out. However they do scatter light, and the light path through them is visible. Cytoplasm of cell is a colloid. Colloids also can transform from a rather watery state (a SOL) to a more viscous, Jell-O-like state (a GEL).

Front 67

Suspension.

Back 67

A heterogeneous mixture with large visible particles which tend to settle out, such as sand in water. Blood is also a suspension. Mixing, shaking, or circulation keeps the cells suspended. Certain remedies which you must shake before taking, like Milk of Magnesia, are suspensions.

Front 68

Chemical reactions

Back 68

a chemical reaction occurs whenever chemical bonds are FORMED, BROKEN, or REARRANGED.

Front 69

Reactants.

Back 69

The substances which react are called REACTANTS.
Chemical reactions

Front 70

PRODUCT(S)

Back 70

The resulting chemical(s) produced is (are) PRODUCT(S).
Chemical reactions

Front 71

For Example Reactants & Product- Chemical Reactations

Back 71

For example, A + B  C. The reactants, A and B combine chemically to form C. Energy is usually required, many times in the form of heat; ENZYMES, in living systems, assist in the reactions.

Front 72

COFACTORS

Back 72

Sometimes VITAMINS and/or TRACE ELEMENTS participate as COFACTORS.
Chemical Reactions

Front 73

Reaction Types

Back 73

The kinds of reactions possible are SYNTHESIS (COMBINATION), DECOMPOSITION (DEGRADATION), and REARRANGEMENT (EXCHANGE, or DISPLACEMENT).

Front 74

Synthesis.

Back 74

This combination reaction always involves bond FORMATION: A+ B  C These reactions are the basis of ANABOLISM or BUILDING reactions and are most common in rapidly growing tissue such as during embryonic development or in wound repair. Examples are protein synthesis from amino acid subunits and the formation of glycogen from glucose (See below.)

Front 75

Decomposition.

Back 75

This degradation reaction always involves bond BREAKING (essentially the reverse of synthesis reactions). Energy is usually RELEASED. All of these reactions are CATABOLIC. For example, AB  A + B, with a release of energy. The reactions are usually COUPLED or CHAINED together so that: AB  A + B  (energy for .... ) CD  C + D. [We still must add some energy to make it all go.]

Front 76

Exchange.

Back 76

This displacement reaction is a dual reaction: both synthesis and decomposition reactions occur to rearrange parts of the reactant molecule(s), producing different products: AB + C  AC + B or VW + XY  VX + WY A good example for the latter is the formation of glucose-6-phosphate from glucose and ATP. ATP is converted to ADP, but a "high-energy bond" has been attached to glucose. It is this type of reaction that often controls many cell processes; one or both of the products may either negatively feedback (inhibit) the enzyme, or one or both of the products in turn may be a starting reactant in another reaction. If a product is present in low or reduced amounts, it often "pulls" the reaction to the right. If a product is present in high amounts, it often inhibits the left-hand side of the reaction to INHIBIT the overall reaction (called "PRODUCT INHIBITION").

Front 77

Suspension.

Back 77

A heterogeneous mixture with large visible particles which tend to settle out, such as sand in water. Blood is also a suspension. Mixing, shaking, or circulation keeps the cells suspended. Certain remedies which you must shake before taking, like Milk of Magnesia, are suspensions.

Front 78

Chemical reactions

Back 78

a chemical reaction occurs whenever chemical bonds are FORMED, BROKEN, or REARRANGED.

Front 79

Reactants.

Back 79

The substances which react are called REACTANTS.
Chemical reactions

Front 80

PRODUCT(S)

Back 80

The resulting chemical(s) produced is (are) PRODUCT(S).
Chemical reactions

Front 81

For Example Reactants & Product- Chemical Reactations

Back 81

For example, A + B  C. The reactants, A and B combine chemically to form C. Energy is usually required, many times in the form of heat; ENZYMES, in living systems, assist in the reactions.

Front 82

COFACTORS

Back 82

Sometimes VITAMINS and/or TRACE ELEMENTS participate as COFACTORS.
Chemical Reactions

Front 83

Reaction Types

Back 83

The kinds of reactions possible are SYNTHESIS (COMBINATION), DECOMPOSITION (DEGRADATION), and REARRANGEMENT (EXCHANGE, or DISPLACEMENT).

Front 84

Synthesis.

Back 84

This combination reaction always involves bond FORMATION: A+ B  C These reactions are the basis of ANABOLISM or BUILDING reactions and are most common in rapidly growing tissue such as during embryonic development or in wound repair. Examples are protein synthesis from amino acid subunits and the formation of glycogen from glucose (See below.)

Front 85

Decomposition.

Back 85

This degradation reaction always involves bond BREAKING (essentially the reverse of synthesis reactions). Energy is usually RELEASED. All of these reactions are CATABOLIC. For example, AB  A + B, with a release of energy. The reactions are usually COUPLED or CHAINED together so that: AB  A + B  (energy for .... ) CD  C + D. [We still must add some energy to make it all go.]

Front 86

Exchange.

Back 86

This displacement reaction is a dual reaction: both synthesis and decomposition reactions occur to rearrange parts of the reactant molecule(s), producing different products: AB + C  AC + B or VW + XY  VX + WY A good example for the latter is the formation of glucose-6-phosphate from glucose and ATP. ATP is converted to ADP, but a "high-energy bond" has been attached to glucose. It is this type of reaction that often controls many cell processes; one or both of the products may either negatively feedback (inhibit) the enzyme, or one or both of the products in turn may be a starting reactant in another reaction. If a product is present in low or reduced amounts, it often "pulls" the reaction to the right. If a product is present in high amounts, it often inhibits the left-hand side of the reaction to INHIBIT the overall reaction (called "PRODUCT INHIBITION").

Front 87

Exchange.

Back 87

This displacement reaction is a dual reaction: both synthesis and decomposition reactions occur to rearrange parts of the reactant molecule(s), producing different products: AB + C  AC + B or VW + XY  VX + WY A good example for the latter is the formation of glucose-6-phosphate from glucose and ATP. ATP is converted to ADP, but a "high-energy bond" has been attached to glucose. It is this type of reaction that often controls many cell processes; one or both of the products may either negatively feedback (inhibit) the enzyme, or one or both of the products in turn may be a starting reactant in another reaction. If a product is present in low or reduced amounts, it often "pulls" the reaction to the right. If a product is present in high amounts, it often inhibits the left-hand side of the reaction to INHIBIT the overall reaction (called "PRODUCT INHIBITION").

Front 88

Redox. (Reduction-oxidation).

Back 88

A special case: both decomposition and exchange reactions occur.

Front 89

Oxidation.

Back 89

When a reactant loses electrons, it becomes OXIDIZED. (Think "loss" sounds like "OX"idized). The reactant is called an ELECTRON DONOR. Example: Na gives up its electron to Cl, Na is oxidized to Na+ and it is an electron donor.

Front 90

Reduction.

Back 90

When a reactant gains electrons, it becomes REDUCED. In the previous section example, Cl is reduced, it accepts a donated electron, so it is called an ELECTRON ACCEPTOR.

Front 91

Simultaneous reactions.

Back 91

Because these events take place simultaneously, the reaction is called a REDOX REACTION. In some cases, electron sharing in covalent bonds is changed.

Front 92

Energy Considerations.

Back 92

All reactions require an initial energy input.

Front 93

NET ENERGY =

Back 93

ENERGY GAINED - ENERGYADDED

Front 94

Traditionally, ENERGY VALUES are expressed as

Back 94

KILOCALORIES PER MOLE. We also speak about the free energy of a reaction, what is the net energy exchange, as DELTA G, or ΔG.

Front 95

Exergonic.

Back 95

the amount of energy added is less than the amount of energy released, then the reaction is EXERGONIC, or, in another way, RELEASED > ADDED. These reactions may liberate heat or power electron pumps. THE PRODUCTS CONTAIN LESS ENERGY THAN THE REACTANTS.

Front 96

Endergonic.

Back 96

If the amount of energy added is more than the amount of energy released, then the reaction is ENDERGONIC, and RELEASED < ADDED. THE PRODUCTS CONTAIN MORE POTENTIAL ENERGY IN THEIR BONDS THAN DID THE REACTANTS.

Front 97

Energy demands.

Back 97

Energy is required for our systems to remain organized. Thus we have an almost constant demand for food. FOOD = POTENTIAL ENERGY in CHEMICAL BONDS.

Front 98

Reversibility of reactions.

Back 98

All chemical reactions are theoretically reversible, that is, the tendency for the reactants to form products is, theoretically, the same as the tendency for the products to revert to reactants. In physiological systems, however, there are conditions which FAVORS the reaction proceeding in only ONE direction.

Front 99

Reversibility of reactions.
Terminology.

Back 99

A + B  AB and A + B  AB at least, in theory, have an equivalent probability of occurring.

Front 100

Reversibility of reactions.
Forward Reaction.

Back 100

The FORWARD reaction proceeds from left to right.

Front 101

Reversibility of reactions.
Reverse Reaction.

Back 101

The REVERSE reaction proceeds from right to left.

Front 102

Reversibility of reactions.
Equilibrium.

Back 102

If the rate in both directions is the same, then an EQUILIBRIUM state exists, with NO NET CHANGE in the amounts of reactants and products.

Front 103

Reversibility of reactions.
Reaction Rates.

Back 103

Reaction rates are altered by any factor which changes the ability of the reactants to COLLIDE. Therefore, more favorable rates exist under certain conditions.a. Temperature. Rate increases as temperature increases.
b. Particle size. As PARTICLE SIZE is reduced, collisions occur with greater energy transfer.
c. Reactant concentration. The more atoms of reactants then the more likely the number of reactions will occur.
d. Catalysts. Enzymes as catalysts can physically bring the reactants closer together to interact.

Front 104

Organic Compounds in Living Systems.
Organic.

Back 104

Contain carbon. These compounds contain carbon (however, CO2 is NOT an ORGANIC chemical.)

Front 105

Inorganic

Back 105

Other chemicals are INORGANIC; many are called "minerals". They include WATER, SALTS, and many ACIDS and BASES.