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135 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The Functions of Skeletons |
Providing: Support Protection Framework for muscles and movement |
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External Skeletons |
A skeleton made of chitin outside of the body. Shed and regrown when the organism grows. |
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Internal Skeleton |
A constant skeleton inside the body including cartilage and bone |
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B____ and C___________ are both living tissue. They have________ ______ and ______. |
Bones and Cartilage are both living tissue. They have blood vessels and nerves. |
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Bones in the Womb |
The Skeleton of a foetus is first made of only cartilage, which is mainly protein. From 6 weeks + minerals like calcium phosphate are deposited into the cartilage. The cartilage becomes ossified, so turns into bone |
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Cartilage in Children Vs Adults |
Children have more cartilage at the ends of their bones because they are still growing |
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Forensic Scientists can tell the ______ of a person from their skeleton by looking at how much _______ is still present. Both Cartilage and ______ can be infected by ________. |
Forensic Scientists can tell the age of a person from their skeleton by looking at how much cartilage is still present. Both Cartilage and Bone can be infected by Pathogens. |
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Moving Someone with a Broken Bone |
If their is a chance that someone has fractured their a bone it is dangerous to move them, as it may lead to another break or fracture |
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Structure of a Long Bone |
Head covered with cartilage Outer part of the shaft is hard bone Hollow Shaft Lighter than solid bones but strong Bone marrow and blood vessels in shaft centre-fat is stored and new blood cells are made |
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Green stick Fracture |
Bone is bent but not broken |
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Compound Fracture |
Bone is broken and breaks the skin |
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Simple Fracture |
Bone is broken but does not break the skin |
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Osteoprosis |
A condition that usually effects the elderly by weakening bones, making them more prone to breakage. |
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Bending Your Arm |
Bicep contracts, tricep relaxes Tendon joining it to raidus doesn't stretch Radius is pulled up as the arm bends |
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Straightening Your Arm |
Tricep contracts, bicep relaxes Tendon joining tricep to ulna stretches Arm straightens. |
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Levers |
Elbow is the pivot point (fulcrum) Hand moves more than muscles Muscle exerts a larger force then what the hand is lifting |
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Fixed Joints |
Skull is made of many bones held together by fixed joints |
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Ball and Socket Joints |
Hips Shoulders |
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Hinge Joints |
Knees Elbows |
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Synovial Joints |
Whole joint is in a capsule with a synovial membrane which secretes synovial fluid. Joint is lubricated Freely movable joints |
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Single Celled Organisms Circulatory Systems (Diffusion of Substances) |
Don't need one Large surface area to volume ratio Oxygen diffuses into the organisms from the water surrounded them through the cell membrane Waste material diffuses out of the cell
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Open Circulatory Systems in Insects |
Blood flows freely through body cavity No veins or arteries Blood makes direct contact with organ and tissue, travelling from the aorta to the brain and back |
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Insect Blood |
Does not carry oxygen Insects breathing tubes deliver it directly to the tissues Watery, greenish blood carries amino acids, sugars and ions with white blood cells to ingest pathogens |
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Closed Circulatory Systems in Vertebrates |
Blood is contained in arteries, capillaries and veins
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Closed Circulatory System in Fish |
Blood circulates from the heart to -the gills to collect oxygen and deposit carbon dioxide -the body organ and tissues Heart is a single pump made of two chambers |
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Circulatory Systems in Humans |
Blood passes from- Heart to body organ and tissue Back to the the heart Heart to lungs to collect oxygen/deposit carbon dioxide Back to heart |
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Double Circulatory Systems |
Heart needs two pumps Blood is under higher pressure than in a single system so moves faster |
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Galen |
Thought the liver made blood and pumped it into organs and tissue, which consumes it in turn |
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William Harvey |
Published a book showing how the blood pumps around the body from the heart and back again, and then two and from the lungs Pulse in arteries is linked to the contractions of the left ventricle of the heart Veins have valves to prevent backflow Guessed the presence of capillaries but did not see them himself |
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Coronary Artery |
Supplies the heart with glucose and oxygen |
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Pulmonary Vein |
Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart |
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Aorta |
Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body |
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Vena Cava |
Carries deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart |
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Pulmonary Artery |
Carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs |
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The left ventricle wall is________ _______ that produces enough energy to push _______ all over the body. The right ventricle wall is _______ as it needs to push blood from the ______ to the _______ and back. |
The left ventricle wall is thick muscle that produces enough energy to push blood all over the body. The right ventricle wall is thinner as it needs to push blood from the heart to the lungs and back. |
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Pacemakers |
A group of cells that control the rate at which the heart contracts by producing a small electrical current to stimulate cardiac muscle to contract |
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Cardiac Cycle |
Sinoatrial Node produces an electrical impulse that causes the atria to contract Atrioventricular Node conduct impulses to Purkyn muscle fibres, ventricles contract AV valves close and blood is pushed out of the ventricles, through the semilunar valves and into the arteries. Atria relax and fill with blood |
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Exercise and Heart Rate |
Exercising increases the amount the skeletal muscles respire more oxygen and glucose, releasing more carbon dioxide, which is carried in the blood to the lungs Impulses are sent to the pacemaker cells, speeding up the heart rate |
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Electrocardiogram |
A machine that traces the electric currents that initiate the heart beat-used to diagnose heart conditions |
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Echocardioagram |
Uses ultrasound waves to detect any heart defects through a scan |
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Artificial Pacemakers |
When the AVN is damaged so it can't send electrical impulses to the heart, artificial pacemakers are used to do it's job |
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Hole in the Heart in the Fetus |
As fetuses oxygenate their blood through the placenta, it enters the right side of the heart and flows through to the left and then to the head and body. |
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Hole in the Heart at Birth |
The hole should close at birth as the baby is now oxygenating via the lungs. If it doesn't then less oxygen is reaching the left ventricle and the rest of the body. Can be closed by surgery. |
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Damaged Heart Valves |
Age can cause stiffness in the valves Bacterial Infections can damage the valves If the valves don't close properly, blood will flow backwards, leading to not enough blood reaching the body and possible heart disease Fixed through surgery, by replacing the valves with pig or cow heart valves |
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Blocked Coronary Arteries |
Fatty plagues can block coronary arteries and obstruct blood flow stopping your heart from getting enough blood. Can cause heart disease Bypass surgery takes a piece of blood vessel from an arm or leg and replaces the blocked artery by the heart |
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Heart Transplants |
Drugs must be taken to suppress the immune system and prevent rejection Shortage of donor hearts as height, age, weight etc has to match |
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Donor Cards |
If a person carries a donor card, a doctor can take their organs when they die |
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Blood Clots |
Platelets in blood gather at the site of a cut to form a clot and preventing further blood loss until fibrin starts to build over it. A scab is eventually formed.
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Anticoagulant Drugs |
Warfarin, Aspirin, Heparin Used to reduce abnormal clotting in blood vessels |
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Haemophillia |
Inherited disease-blood fails to clot due to a faulty clotting protein |
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Blood Transfusions are for.... |
people who have lost blood through injury or in surgery haemophiliacs some cancer patients |
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Blood Donors |
Haemoglobin levels are checked 500cm3 of blood is taken from a vein in the arm Blood is screened for diseases and then sealed in packages to transfuse |
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Blood Group A |
Antiglutinins on the surface of the red blood cells: A Antibodies Circulating in the blood: Anti-B Accepts blood from: A or O
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Blood Group B |
Antiglutinins on the surface of the red blood cells: B Antibodies Circulating in the blood: Anti-A Accepts blood from: B or O |
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Blood Group AB |
Antiglutinins on the surface of the red blood cells: A and B Antibodies Circulating in the blood: None Accepts blood from: A, B, AB or O |
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Blood Group O |
Antiglutinins on the surface of the red blood cells: None Antibodies Circulating in the blood: Anti-A or Anti-B Accepts blood from: O |
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Rhesus Positve or Negative |
Rhesus Positive if plasma has a D protein can receive blood from positive and negative Rhesus Negative if plasma does not have a D protein and can receive blood only from negative
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Fish use gills to exchange... |
Oxygen-absorbed by filaments in the gills and is transported away from the gill filaments by the blood supply |
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The trachea |
Flexible tube which is surrounded by rings of cartilage for support |
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Bronchi |
Branches of the trachea |
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Bhronchioles |
Branches of the bronchi |
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Lungs |
For inhalation and exhalation of air in gas exchange |
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Alveoli |
Site of gas exchange |
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Intercostal Muscles |
To raise and lower the ribs |
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Pleural Membranes |
To protect and lubricate the surface of the lung |
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Diaphragm |
Muscular sheet between thorax and abdomen |
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Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Through the Body |
Oxygen enter the blood in the lungs and leaves the blood in body tissues Carbon Dioxide enters the blood in body tissues and leaves the blood in the lungs |
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Gaseous Exchange in Single Celled Organisms |
Large surface area to volume ratio, which allows enough oxygen to diffuse into the cell and for carbon dioxide to diffuse out |
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Gaseous Exchange in Earthworms |
Thin, permeable skin for oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse through Full of water Secrete mucus to prevent from drying out as they don't have waterproof skin
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Gaseous Exchange in Frogs |
Susceptible to water loss because their skin is permeable to gasses Some survive with a layer of slime over their skin in dryer habitats |
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Ventilation (Process of Breathing In) |
Intercostal muscles contract, raising the rib up Diaphragm flattens Volume of air increases in lungs Air pressure in lungs is lower than outside, air enters from outside through diffusion |
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Exhalation (Process of Breathing Out) |
Intercostal muscles relax Diaphragm Contracts volume of air decreases in lungs Air pressure in lungs is high than outside, air diffuses out when alveoli recoil |
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Tidal Air |
Volume of air breathed in or out in a normal breath |
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Vital Capacity |
Maximum amount of air that can be breathed in or out |
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Residual Air |
Volume of air that stays in lungs when we breath out |
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Adaptations of Alveoli |
Massive Surface area Moist, thin, permeable surface Excellent supply of blood |
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Gaseous Exchange and Alveoli |
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the alveoli, and oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to the blood |
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Mucus |
Trap small particles like pathogens, viruses, bacteria and fungal spores |
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Cilia |
Beat and waft the mucus up to the back of the throat to be swallowed, coughed or sneezed. |
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Asbestosis |
Caused by inhaling asbestos fibres in industry Fibres get trapped in air sacs, reducing gas exchange Breathlessness, coughing excessively and death |
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Asthma |
In asthma attacks the bronchioles become inflamed, mucus and fluid collect in the airways and the bronchiole muscles contract, constricting the airways Causes coughing, tightness in the chest, difficulty in breathing and wheezing. Treated by medicine to relax the bronchiole muscles in an inhaler |
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Bronchitis |
Inflamation of the Bhronci |
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Cystic Fibrosis |
Genetically inherited disease where too much mucus is produced in the lungs, creating difficulty in breathing |
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Lung Cancer |
Often caused by smoking Tar in smoke cause lung cells to mutate and grow uncontrollably, reducing lung surface area |
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Pneumonia |
Can be caused by a virus or bacterial infection Causes inflammation in the lungs where fluid builds up |
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Physical Digestion |
Chewing food in your mouth and squeezing food in your stomach to break it down into small enough pieces to pass through your gut easily. |
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Chemical Digestion |
Uses enzymes to break down large, insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble molecules to diffuse through the walls of the small intestine into the blood. |
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Enzymes in the Mouth, Stomach and Small Intestine and What they Break Down |
Mouth-Carbohydrase-Carbohydrates Stomach-Protease-Proteins into amino acids Small Intestine-Carbohydrase, Protease, Lipase-Lipase=fats into fatty acids and glycerol |
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Function of Hydrochloric Acid in the stomach |
Kills Pathogens in food and give protease enzymes their optimum pH to work at |
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Bile |
Stored in gall bladder and released into small intestine Emulsifies fats into smaller droplets to give enzymes a higher surface area to work on |
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Adaptations of the Small Intestine |
Long and has a thin lining Very large surface area provided by villi and microvilli Permeable surface and rich blood supply |
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Large Intestine |
absorb water and minerals into the blood Semi solid waste left in the intestine is egested through the anus |
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Breaking Down Starch
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Carbohydrase Starch ------> Maltose --------> Glucose
Large Polymer Double Sugar Single Sugar |
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Production and Removal of Carbon Dioxide |
Produced by respiration Removed by the lungs through expiration |
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Production and Removal of Sweat |
Excreted through the skin Evaporated from the skin with body heat |
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Production and Removal of Urea |
Produced from excess amino acids in the liver Removed in the kidneys |
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Volume of Urine |
More water consumption = More dilute urine Less water consumption = More concentrated urine |
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The Liver |
Breaks down old red blood cells Breaks down excess amino acids into ammonia, which reacts with carbon dioxide to produce urea. Urea travels to the Kidney to be excreted.
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Ultrafiltration |
Blood from renal artery is forced into the glomerulus under high pressure. Water, glucose and urea is forced out of glomerulus into Bowman's capsule. |
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Selective Reabsorption |
Useful substances like glucose are reabsorbed into the blood as it passes through a long and folded coiled tubule |
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Salt and Water Regulation
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Water is reabsorbed into the blood in the hairpin bend of the loop of henle. The loop extends from the cortex to the medulla
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Anti-diuretic Hormone |
Produced by the pituitary gland. Used to increase or decrease the permeability of the kidney tubules to allow more or less water to re-enter the blood. Negative Feedback |
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Dialysis |
For patients suffering from kidney failure Blood is taken from a vein and run into a dialysis machine. Urea and excess substances are excreted through a partially permeable membrane and the cleaned blood is returned to the patient |
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Uterus |
Where the embryo develops |
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Oviduct |
Carries egg to uterus |
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Ovary |
Produces eggs, oestrogen and progesterone |
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Scrotum |
Keeps testes outside the body which is cooler so better for sperm production |
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Testes |
Produce sperm and testosterone |
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Sperm Ducts |
Carry sperm |
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Process of the Mestrual Cycle |
Uterus lining breaks down Uterus wall is repaired and gradually thickens Ovulation when egg is released from ovary Uterus lining stays thick for implantation of a fertilised egg Cycle starts again when no egg is detected |
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FSH |
Released from the pituitary gland Stimulates the egg to ripen in the ovary |
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Oestrogen |
Released by the ovary and stimulates the thickening of the uterus lining |
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LH |
Release stimulated by oestrogen, released from the pituitary gland Controls ovulation |
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Progesterone |
Produced post ovulation to preserve the uterus lining |
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Controlling Fertility in Humans |
Hormonal contraceptives mimic a pregnancy and inhibit FSH release so that the body can't get pregnant "again" |
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Causes of Infertility |
Blocked fallopian tubes or sperm ducts Insufficient fertile sperm produced by testes Undeveloped eggs, or problems in egg release from the ovaries |
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Infertility Treatments |
Fertility Drugs Artificial Insemination IVF Egg Donation Ovary Transplant Surrogacy |
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Problems with Egg/Sperm Donation |
Embryo carries genes from only one parent |
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Problems with Surrogacy |
Surrogate can become emotionally attached to the child |
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Problems with IVF |
Unreliability grows with age, and success rate is initially low Twins or triplets are more likely Leftover embryos-unethical |
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Amniocentesis Tests |
Analyse cells from the foetus Hypodermic Needle is used to take a sample to be checked for chromosome abnormalities Carries a 1 in 200 risk of miscarriage |
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Growth Hormone |
Stimulates general growth of long bones and muscles Deficiencies treated by injection s of human growth hormone |
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Infancy |
First two years of life Highest rate of growth |
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Childhood |
2-11 Years of age Growth slower than at infacy |
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Adolescence |
11-15 Years, when puberty begins 10-12 Growth spurt in girls 12-15 Growth spurt in boys |
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Maturity |
Males continue to grow till 18-20 years Females reach their full adult height at 16 |
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Old Age |
60-65 yrs+ Physical features begin to detoriate |
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Factors Affecting Human Growth |
Diet Exercise Amount of Growth Hormone produced How healthy you are Past disease Hormones |
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Reasons why Life Expectancy has Increased |
Less industrial disease and accidents Healthier diets Better housing Vaccinations Better cancer and heart treatments |
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Problems with Increased Life Expectancy |
Not enough resources to fulfill the needs of the increased population Medical treatments needed for the elderly Job prospects for the youth lacks as the older population need to be working economically |
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Measuring Human Growth |
Head circumference Body length Mass |
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Donated Organs must be... |
Healthy The right size and age A good tissue match to prevent rejection |
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Issues with Organ Donation |
Unethical religiously Worry about relatives opinions and effects on their own body Opt in system means there is a shortage of donors Organ Donation lacks payment, if it was paid |
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Problems with Organ Donation |
Immunosuppressant Drugs must be taken for the rest of the patients lives after surgery to prevent the body from rejecting the donor organ. |
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Mechanical Replacements must... |
Be small and Compact to fit inside the body Be made of material that will not wear or cause allergic reaction have a reliable power supply if necessary in context |
