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77 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the advantages of an internal skeleton? |
-Framework for body -Grows with body -Flexible due to joints -Allows easy attachment of muscles |
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What is the structure of a long bone? |
Long shaft containing bone marrow and blood vessels, each end covered in cartilage. They're hollow so are stronger and lighter than solid bones. |
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What process allows us to turn cartilage into bone as we grow older? |
Ossification- the deposition of calcium and phosphorus. |
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What causes osteoporosis? |
Lack of calcium and phosphorus. |
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Why is it dangerous to move someone after an accident? |
There may be undetected damage to the vertebrae which can cause damage to the spinal chord and result in paralysis or death. |
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Explain the synjovial joint. |
A ball and socket or hinge joint. They contain synjovial fluid, ligaments, synjovial membrane and cartilage. |
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What's the difference between ball n socket, and hinge? |
BS has wider movement range |
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The forearm is raised and lowered using ______ muscles, biceps and triceps. |
antagonistic |
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To raise the forearm, biceps _____ and triceps ______. |
CONTRACT RELAX |
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What is the purpose of each part of the synjovial joint? |
S. fluid: cushion against shock/ lubricant S. membrane: holds in the fluid Cartilage: protects bone head Ligaments: hold bones in place |
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Give a movement example of a lever. |
Raising and lowering the forearm, elbow acting as the fulcrum (pivot). |
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Why do we need a circulatory system? |
To ensure our cells get enough food and oxygen and to remove waste products like CO2. |
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What did Galen think? |
The heart acted as a pump but that the liver made blood that flowed backward and forward |
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What did William Harvey think? |
Knew the blood circulated around the body and that the heart had 4 chambers and tiny vessels that we now know as capillaries. |
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What do the muscles in the heart do during the cardiac cycle? |
2 Atria contract as 2 ventricles relax to receive blood through the atrio-ventricular valves. 2 ventricles then contract to force blood to the lungs or body through the aorta and pulmonary artery.
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What does a pacemaker do? |
Send a small electric current into the heart to stimulate muscle contraction. Sino-atrial nose (SAN) causes atria to contract and thus stimulate the atrio-ventricular node (AVN) which causes the ventricles to contract. |
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What 2 methods can be used to investigate heart function? |
ECG and echo-cardiogram. |
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What is a 'hole in the heart' and how can it be corrected? |
Allows blood to flow from one side of the heart to the other, mixing oxygen and de-oxygenated blood so blood leaving the aorta carries less oxygen, causing muscles to have less and thus less energy. Corrected by open heart surgery. |
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How is unborn babies' circulation different to ours? |
Lungs don't function until it's born so it doesn't need a double circulatory system. A hole is in the heart that closes after birth most of the time. |
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What's the problem with weak heart valves and how can it be corrected? |
Produces lower blood pressure and poor circulation- and sometimes back flow. Corrected by surgical repair or replacement. |
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Why and how to we fix a blocked coronary artery? |
Blood flow to the heart muscle would be reduced bc of the blockage. It can be by-passed by replacement with a blood vessel from another part of the body. |
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How are major heart problems amended? |
Heart transplant or small electrical pumps to provide extra pressure to blood leaving the heart- thus allowing time for recovery. |
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What does a blood transfusion do? |
Puts the correct blood type into the patient's system to replace any blood lost during injury or an operation. |
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What drugs are used during blood donation? |
Anti-coagulants such as heparin. |
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What information is recorded during blood donation? |
Blood group and rhesus info. |
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What are people with haemophilia at risk from? |
Internal bleeding from slight injury because their blood doesn't clot. |
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What is the process of blood clotting? |
A cascade process in which the contact of blood platelets and air triggers a sequence of chemical reactions leading to the formation of fibrin fibre mesh-work. |
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What happens when blood in a transfusion is not compatible? |
Agglutination. Agglutinins in red blood cells and blood plasma react. For example, Type A has anti-B antigens on its surface and thus cannot go with type B. Type O has botn anti-A and anti-B antigens, so can only receive O. Type AB has no antigens so can receive anything. |
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How do fish obtain oxygen? |
Water being forced over filaments |
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What happens to our chest as we breathe? |
Intercostal muscles contract, ribs move up and out and the diaphragm moves downward, causing chest volume to increase and pressure to decrease. Higher outside pressure causes air to enter the lungs. |
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What is tidal air? |
Amount of air normally breathed in and out while at rest. |
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What is vital capacity? |
Maximum amount of air which can be exchanged |
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What is residual air? |
Amount of air which cannot be forced out of lungs and thus remains after maximum exhalation. |
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How does exchange of gases take place in the body? |
Diffusion between alveoli because oxygen concentration is higher in the air than in the de oxygenated blood capillaries around the alveoli. |
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How are exchange surfaces adapted? |
Large surface area and permeable walls only one cell thick. |
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What's a spirometer? |
A means of measuring lung capacity and rate of air flow |
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What does asbestos do to a body? |
Causes asbestosis in which the fibres cause inflammation and scarring of lung tissue, reducing gas exchange. |
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What is cystic fibrosis? |
Too much mucus is produced in the bronchioles causing breathing difficulties. |
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What happens during an asthma attack? |
The lining of airways becomes inflamed, mucus and fluid build up and muscles around bronchioles contract- narrowing airways. |
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Why is physical digestion important? |
-Allows food to pass more easily through the digestive system -Prepares food for chemical digestion by giving it larger surface area |
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Which three places are sites of chemical digestion? |
Mouth- saliva contains carbohydrase to break down starch and sugar Stomach- Protease breaks down protein into amino acids Small intestine- Lipase breaks down fat into fatty acids and glycerol |
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Why does protein get broken down in the stomach? |
Because the high acidic conditions are optimum for the protease enzymes like pepsin. |
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What are the 2 steps of chemical breakdown of starch? |
1. Break of starch (many linked units) to maltose (2 linked units) 2. Breakdown of maltose into glucose (one unit) |
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How does the gall bladder contribute to digestion? |
It releases bile into the small intestine to emulsify fats for a larger surface area and thus more efficient digestion. |
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Label this! |
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What's the process of food absorption? |
Digested carbs and protein diffuse through walls of small intestine and into the blood, fats aren't soluble though so they diffuse through the walls of the small intestine and into the lymph |
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How is the small intestine adapted to make food absorption more efficient? |
-Extensive system of blood capillaries -Extensive lymphatic system of lacteals -Large surface area comprised of many villi in the walls and microvilli off of those villi lol |
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What is done with unwanted, excess amino acids? |
They're broken down in the liver into urea and taken by the blood to the kidneys via the renal artery where they can be expelled via the ureters as urine. |
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What's the structure of the kidney? |
A renal artery by which unclean blood enters and renal vein where clean blood leaves. An outer cortex and inter medulla. Waste leaves via the ureters. Millions of microscopic tubules (nephrons) where filtration takes place. |
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Explain the structure of a nephron. |
-A network of capillaries (the glomerulus) surrounded by a capsule to form a filtration unit -Region for selective re-absorption of glucose -Re-absorption area for salt and water |
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How does a dialysis machine work? |
-Blood high in urea is taken from a blood vessel in the arm, mixed with blood thinners to prevent clotting, and pumped into the machine. -As the dialysis fluid has no urea in it, urea diffuses across the partially permeable membrane, from the blood to the dialysis fluid. -As the dialysis fluid contains a glucose concentration equal to a normal blood sugar level, this prevents the net movement of glucose across the membrane -And, as the dialysis fluid contains an ion concentration similar to the ideal blood plasma concentration, movement of ions across the membrane only occurs where there is an imbalance. |
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Which hormone controls urine concentration? |
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), produced by the pituitary gland. |
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How does ADH control urine concentration? |
-Increase permeability of kidney tubules so more water is reabsorbed -Increase negative feedback to control ADH production |
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Why must CO2 be removed from the body? |
At high levels it's toxic |
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How does the body try to actively remove CO2? |
An increase of it is detected by receptors in the carotid artery and nerve impulses inform the brain which increases the rate of breathing to remove the CO2 via the lungs. |
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What 4 hormones control the female menstrual cycle? |
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): stimulates egg to develop in an ovary Lutenising hormone (LH): Controls egg release Progesterone: maintains uterus wall Oestrogen: repairs uterus wall |
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FSH and LH are controlled by what? |
The pituitary gland |
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What happens to hormone levels if fertilisation does not occur? |
Levels of oestrogen and progesterone drop |
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Why does menstruation occur? |
Hormone levels are low and a message is sent to the hypothalamus en sujet de ca. |
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What happens if an egg is fertilised? (short term) |
Levels of hormones stay high so no FSH is produced thus so more eggs develop and uterus lining doesn't break down. |
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How do artificial sex hormones prevent ovulation? |
Make the body think it's pregnant and this inhibits FHS production, eggs thus won't be stimulated to develop. |
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Explain the process of Artificial insemination |
Sperm is placed into the vagina by syringe |
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Explain IVF |
In Vitro Fertilisation. An egg is fertilised by sperm outside the body |
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Explain egg donation |
Egg is donated from another female, fertilised then placed inside the uterus |
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Explain surrogacy |
A fertilised egg is placed inside a surrogate mother |
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What are some methods for treating fertility |
-IVF -Artificial insemination -Ovary transplant -FSH to stimulate egg development -Egg donation -Surrogacy |
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Why don't people agree with fertility treatment? |
Expensive for the individual and the NHS. A single IVF is £6000 with 25% success rate. |
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How can a foetus be checked for abnormalities? |
-Amniocentesis: extracting and testing cells in amniotic fluid -Chromosomal Analysis: a blood test for chromosome abnormalities |
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How can we increase our growth? |
A balanced diet including calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D and proteins with regular exercise. |
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What are extremes of height caused by? |
Hormone imbalance or genes. |
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What part of a foetus grows first? |
The head hahaha it looks really funny |
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Why is foetal growth monitored? |
To give early warning for things like malnourishment and hormone imbalance. |
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What are the problems with mechanical implants? |
-Power supply -Properties of material used -Large size -Body's reaction to foreign materials |
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What can living donors donate? |
-Blood -Bone marrow -One kidney |
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What must a deceased donor have in order to be a donor? |
Family permission, approval from a donor (in will maybe) and confirmation that the donor is brain dead. |
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What is dangerous about the drugs that come with transplants? |
Immuno-suppressants must be taken for the whole life in order to combat rejection, but these can lead to the body being unable to protect itself from micro-organisms. |
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Why do some transplants have higher survival rates than others? |
Due to extensiveness of surgery and sometimes age of recipients. |
