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234 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Name the type of RNA that carries a specific amino acid to the proper place to build an amino acid chain |
tRNA |
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Difference between passive and active channels in plasma membrane |
Passive channels are free channels that stay open all the time and allow movement of ions Active channels are gated. They only allow movement of ions in certain conditions. There are 2 types: Voltage regulated and chemically regulated |
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What is irritability? |
Part of the cytoplasm that enables the cells to respond to stimulus |
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Difference between excretion and secretion |
excretion is elimination of waste secretion is release of useful substances |
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Anabolism vs catabolism |
Anabolism is the building up of complex substances from simple units Catabolism is the breaking down of substances to simple units for energy |
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Metabolism |
sum total of all the biochemical reactions taking place in the cells of the body |
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Mitosis |
division of a cell leading to 2 daughter cells. Each daughter cells gets the same amount of chromosomes as the mother cell. Daughter cells are called diploid cells |
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Meiosis |
4 daughter cells are produced and have half the number of chromosomes as the mother cell. These are called haploid cells. |
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osmosis |
movement of water across a membrane from high to low concentration |
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hypertrophy vs hyperplasia |
hypertrophy- abnormal increase in cell size due to increase in cytoplasm size hyperplasia- abnormal increase in an organ due to increase number of cells |
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diffusion |
movement of dissolved particles across membrane from high to low concentration |
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Type of RNA that is the reader of code in RNA chain |
rRNA |
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Type of RNA that carries coded information from nucleus to ribosome |
mRNA |
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function of lysosome |
digests ingested material in cell |
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function of ribosomes |
helps in protein synthesis |
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2 main function of mitochondria |
1. Help in energy production 2. Internal respiration of cell |
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What type of channels are located on plasma membranes on a synpase? |
Chemically regulated channels |
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Which cells contain voltage regulated channels in their plasma membrane? |
nerve cells (neurons) |
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Atrophy vs Aplasia |
Atrophy- Abnormal decrease in organ size Aplasia- organ fails to develop completely |
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Crystalloids |
-dissolve in water (salt in water) -fluids can easily diffuse between body compartments -normal saline, lactate ringers, Normasol R |
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Colloids |
-do not dissolve in water but can be suspended -contain large molecules -cannot move between body compartments -plasma, dextran, hetastarch |
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Which ions are found in the greatest amount outside a cell? |
Sodium (Na) and Chloride (Cl) Ions |
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Which ions are found in the greatest amount inside the cell? |
Potassium (K) and Phosphate ions |
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Give examples of carbohydrates in the cell |
glucose, fructose, lactose, sucrose |
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saturated fatty acids |
- have double the number of hydrogen atoms than carbon atoms - all atoms connected by single bond |
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unsaturated fatty acids |
- have more carbon atoms than hydrogen - one or more atoms connected by double bond |
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Lipids are soluble in what solvents? |
Ether, Xylene, Chloroform |
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Conjugative protein |
simple proteins combined with a non-protein part - glycoprotein, lipoprotein |
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Passive transport |
-particles move across plasma without using energy -move from high to low concentration |
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Active transport |
- molecules move through membranes against concentration gradient - uses cell energy - moves from low to high concentration |
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basic structural unit of protein |
amino acids |
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Name the inorganic substance found in hemoglobin |
Iron (Fe) |
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What will happen to a cell that is dropped in a hypertonic fluid? |
cell will lose water and shrink
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What will happen to a cell that is dropped in a hypotonic fluid? |
cell will draw water and swell |
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Give examples of isotonic fluids that are used in clinical practice |
- Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) - Lactate Ringers Solution - Normasol R |
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isotonic |
same osmolality as blood or body fluids |
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hypotonic |
lower osmolality as blood |
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hypertonic |
higher osmolality than blood |
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Where do you find interstitial fluid? Give examples of fluids |
in body cavities or between cells Synovial fluid, pericardial fluid, peritoneal fluid |
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Which body compartment contains the greatest amount of water? |
intracellular compartment |
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Name the 3 body fluid water compartments? |
- intracellular - intravascular - interstitial |
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structural protein vs reactive protein |
structural- help build body structures like collagen, elastin, and keratin reactive- needed for biochemical reactions like enzymes, protein hormones, hemoglobin, myoglobin |
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Repolarization |
- movement of potassium (K) to outside the cell -cell permeability to K increases |
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resting membrane potential |
voltage difference between positive charges outside membrane and negative charges inside membrane during rest phase |
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saltatory conduction |
jumping movement of current from node to node |
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Why is the speed of conduction of an action potential faster in myelinated fibers vs unmyelinated fiber? |
because in myelinated fibers the current jumps from node to node |
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What are the factors that affect speed of conduction in a nerve fiber? |
diameter of the fiber and myelination |
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Does the speed of action potential remain constant in a given nerve fiber? |
YES |
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Synapse |
- Junction between two neurons, a neuron and a muscle cell, or a neuron and glands - Electrochemical transmission site - Neurochemical substances are released to allow impulse to pass through one neuron to another |
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Action potential/ nerve impulse |
-movement of electric charges (Na+ and K+) in and out of membrane -starts at cell body (axon hillock) and spreads through length of nerve fiber (axon) |
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Does synapse operate in only one direction? |
yes |
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What ions first start moving inside the cell to depolarize it when a stimulus is applied? |
Sodium (Na) ions |
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What is depolarization? |
-movement of sodium ions to inside a cell making inside a little positive -Membrane permeability to Na increases |
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threshold stimulus |
stimulus that can depolarize the resting membrane potential to a point where it can produce an action potential |
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stimulus |
-anything that disturbs the resting membrane potential and is strong enough to produce a nerve impulse/action potential in the nerve fiber - can be mechanical, chemical, or thermal stimulus |
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why are cells in a state of resting potential? |
-inner side of cell has lots of negative charges in form of proteins, phosphates, and amino acids -negative charges first attract positive charges -when # of particles increases inside cell osmotic pressure may rise and draw more water inside cell - this may lead cell to burst -to prevent bursting more positive ions move outward leaving more negative charges inside |
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What is normal resting potential of a nerve cell? |
-85mV |
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What change occurs in the permeability of plasma membrane to initiate an action potential/nerve impulse? |
first change is depolarization to allow sodium channels to open and let sodium ions in |
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reflex |
-response of an organ to a stimulus -involves at least 2 neurons to make a reflex arch |
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cholenergic fibers |
-fibers that release acetylcholine -parasympathetic fibers are considered cholenergic |
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what is the main function of the autonomic nervous system? |
to maintain the internal environment of the body |
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Autonomic nervous system controls the activity of what type of muscles? |
smooth muscles cardiac muscles and glands |
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reflex centers for coughing, sneezing, respiration, vomiting, and swallowing are located in which part of the brain? |
medulla oblongata |
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Which part of the brain contains relfex centers for locomotion and balance? |
cerebellum |
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absolute refractory period |
When Na ions rush into cells. At this stage you cannot initiate another action potential |
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relative refractory period |
When K ions move out to repolarize membrane. Here you can generate another action potential but only if it is polarized to a value more positive than its previous threshold |
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somatic reflex |
reflexes involved with skeletal muscle e.g. patellar reflex |
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visceral reflex |
reflex involving smooth muscle or cardiac muscles or glands e.g. production of saliva or gastric juices |
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What are adrenergic fibers? |
-release nor-epinephrine from their nerve endings. -sympathetic fibers are adrenergic |
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Convergence |
-When many neural axons are making synapse with one neuron. -Collective input would be much greater and more detailed info would be supplied |
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Divergence |
-When one neuronal axon is making synapses with many neurons. -Here one neuron is splitting info to many neurons |
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What is IPSP? |
-Hyperpolarization of membrane at synapse. -Created by GABA and glycin |
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What is EPSP? |
excitatory post synaptic potential -partial depolarization of membrane on excitatory type synapse. -Substances like epinephrine, acetylcholine, nor-epinephrine, and dopamine can create EPSP |
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What is the trigger point in resting potential voltage that can change it to an action potential/nerve impulse? |
-59mV |
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Name the inhibitory substances released at type 2 synapses? |
GABA and glycin |
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Name the excitatory substances released at type 1 synapses? |
acetylcholine, epinephrine, nor-epinephrine, dopamine, seratonin |
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Which part of the brain contains reflex centers for thinking and memorization? |
cerebral cortex |
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what are the special cells responsible for sense of taste? |
taste buds |
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conduction deafness vs nerve deafness |
conduction is due to mechanical problem in middle ear bones nerve is due to trauma to cochlear nerve |
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what actions help in deciding the specific pitch or frequency of a sound? |
movement of hair cells at a specific place on basilar membrane in cochlea |
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Which part of the cochlea is sensitive to sound waves? |
organ of corti |
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Which part of the vestibule provides sensitive inputs to the brain regarding position of the head in relation to gravity? |
saccules and utricles |
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Which parts of the vestibule are responsible for sensing angular acceleration? |
semicircular canals |
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What is the function of the vestibular part of the inner ear? |
sense of balance |
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What is the function of the cochlear part of the inner ear? |
sense of hearing |
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What is the function of the 3 bones in the middle ear? |
Mechanical Transmission - to transmit impulses from external ear to inner ear |
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Name the structure that brings the air in the middle ear from the pharynx |
Eustachian tube |
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Name the 3 auditory bones in the middle ear |
malleus, incus, stapes |
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name the cranial nerve that transmit sense of smell to the brain |
cranial nerve 1 (olfactory nerve) |
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What important step is needed to get the desired results from any kind of energy? |
must be converted into action potential |
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Name the tongue papillae that contain taste buds |
fungiform and vallate |
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What is the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the pupil of the eye? |
dilates the pupil |
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Phasic receptors vs tonic receptors |
phasic- adapt quickly and stop producing action potential. e.g. receptors for pressure and touch tonic- dont adapt quickly or not at all. e.g. pain, sound, and sight receptors |
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function of golgi tendon organs |
prevents excessive contraction of the muscle |
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function of muscle spindles |
send signals of muscle contraction or relaxation to brain or spinal cord |
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Name the special nerve endings responsible for transmitting impulses for muscle sense |
muscle spindles golgi tendon organs |
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What is proprioreception? |
responding to the position and movement of the body |
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what are Nociceptors |
pain receptors |
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name the 2 thermorecepetors and their function |
ruffini corpucles- for heat krause end bulbs- for cold |
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What are mechanoreceptors? |
special receptor cells for touch, pressure, vibration |
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List 3 mechanoreceptors and their functions |
meissners corpuscles - touch receptors pacinian corpuscles- pressure naked nerve ending- pain |
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generator potential |
-depolarization of special cells -any stimulus must depolarize the receptor cells to produce action potential |
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list the special senses of the body |
sight, smell, taste, hearing, equilibrium |
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list the somatic sense of the body |
touch, pressure, temperature, pain |
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The special sells for sense of smell are located in what part of the body? |
nasal mucosa |
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name the clinical test to detect the overproduction of tears |
schirmer tear test |
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function of nictitating membrane |
kind of cartilage that moves sideways over the eye to protect and lubricate the eyeball with tears and protect lacrimal glands |
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inflammation and prolapse of what part of the eye causes Cherry Eye? |
third eye lid |
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Name the 3 tunics of the eye |
fibrous tunic vascular tunic nervous tunic |
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name the glands associated with eyelids and eyelashes |
meibomian glands zeis glands |
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name the layer that is responsible for the glowing of animals eyes in the dark |
tapetum layer of choroid |
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name the clinical test done to detect blockage of nasolacrimal duct |
fluorescent dye test |
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function of retractor oculi muscle |
pulls the eye globe back into socket |
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name the vitamin that is needed for production of cis-retinine in rod cells |
vitamin A |
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what changes occur in cis-retinine in rod cells when the light strikes the retina? |
cis-retinine is converted into all-trans-retinine which acts as a stimulus to produce action potential |
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which cells in the retina are for black and white vision? |
rods cells |
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name the receptor cells in retina that are responsible for color vision |
cone cells |
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Name the receptor cells in retina that are sensitive to light energy and convert it to electric energy |
rod and cone cells |
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Name the fluid produced by the ciliary body |
aqueous humor |
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What action of the ciliary muscle helps focusing the lens on a close object? |
contraction of ciliary muscles |
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What action of the ciliary muscle helps focusing the lens on a distant object? |
relaxation making the lens more flat |
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What is the effect of parasympathetic stimulation on the pupil of the eye? |
constricts the pupil |
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Name the 3 layers of tear film |
oily layer aqueous layer mucus layer |
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What will happen if muscle contraction outstrips the mitochondrias ability to produce ATPs aerobically? |
lactic acid builds up leading to muscle fatigue |
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calcium ions bind to what part of thin filament? |
troponine molecule |
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ephatic conduction |
type of a direct transmission of a wave of depolarization from one cell to another |
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What is the self excitation process of smooth muscles? |
have their own pacemakers that initiate wave of depolarization to stimulate contraction |
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function of all types of muscles |
contraction and relaxation |
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What type of muscle is found in body organs such as stomach, esophagus, and intestine? |
smooth muscle |
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smooth muscles vs cardiac muscle vs skeletal muscle |
smooth - involuntary and non striated cardiac - involuntary and lightly striated skeletal - voluntary and heavily striated |
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Which muscle fibers have intercalated discs interposed at gap junctions? |
cardiac muscles |
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What is tetany? |
extreme stage of contraction |
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Name the pacemaker of cardiac cells |
SA node |
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List the 3 sources of energy utilized by the muscle fibers |
1. ATP attached at head of HMM 2. Creatine phosphate (CP) 3. glucose metabolism into Kreb cycle |
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Effect of botulinum toxins on neuromuscular junction |
inhibits release of acetylcholine from terminal knobs of nerve fibers |
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effect of crurari form drugs on neuromuscular junction |
block receptors of acetylcholine on muscle cell membrane |
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effect of organo-phosphate compounds on neuromuscular junction |
inhibits acetylcholinestrase enzyme |
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What is essential in order for a contracted muscle to relax? |
calcium ions must be pumped back into sarcoplasmic reticulums |
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Where does the head of HMM attach? |
G-actin molecule |
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Muscle rigor mortis |
extreme stage of fatigue no energy is left in muscles like after death |
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Name the structural and functional unit of contraction of a striated muscle fiber |
sarcomere |
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List the 5 characteristics of Type II White muscle fibers |
1. Low in myoglobin 2. Low in blood supply 3. Few mitochondria 4. Rich in glycogen contents 5. Fast twitch and fatigue prone |
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List the characteristics of Type I Red Muscle fibers |
1. Rich in myoglobin 2. Rich in blood supply 3. Plenty of mitochondria 4. Low in glycogen contents 5. Slow twitch and fatigue resistant |
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effect of Calcium ions binding to troponine molecule |
turns troponine into tropomyocin complex to move away from the G actin binding sites |
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Name 3 components of thin filament (Ultrastructure) |
G actin Troponine Tropomyocin |
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Name the 2 segments of thick filament (ultrastructure) |
HMM LMM |
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Which ions are the most important for muscle contraction and relaxation? |
calcium ions |
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Why are smooth muscles less fatigue prone than skeletal muscles? |
smooth muscles use less oxygen and energy |
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Calcium ions are stored in which part of the skeletal muscle fiber? |
sarcoplasmic reticulum |
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isotonic contraction vs isometric contraction |
isotonic - muscle length shortens on contraction. E.g. walking, running Isometric - muscle length does not shorten on contraction. E.g. pushing against an object |
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Sarcomere |
segment of myofibril between the two Z lines |
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Z-line |
Anchor line The one end of thin filament is attached to z line |
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A-band |
the dark zone that consists of overlapping thin and thick filaments |
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I-band |
lighter zone consisting of only thin filaments |
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Why do skeletal muscles appear striated? |
due to alternate arrangement of thin and thick filaments |
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Why is contraction time longer in cardiac muscles? |
because the process of attachment of the HMM head to G actin molecules is very slow |
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Name the neurochemical substance released at neuromuscular junction |
acetylcholine |
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What is comminuted fracture? |
when the bone crushes into many pieces |
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What inorganic compounds make bones rigid and hard? |
calcium and phosphorus |
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Main functions of osteoblasts |
- bone forming cells - produce and secrete organic matrix osteoid - help in calcification of organic matrix |
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Where are osteocytes located? |
lacunae |
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Main functions of osteoclasts |
- bone eating cells - help in remodeling bone during bone growth or fracture healing |
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basic structural unit of compact bone |
osteon |
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compact bone vs cancellous bone |
compact - dense bones with proper haversian system cancellous - spongy bones with no haversian system |
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endochondral ossification vs intramembranous ossification |
Endochondral - cartilage develops into bone Intramembranous- fibrous tissue develops into bone |
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What types of bone develop by endochondral and intracartilagenous ossification? |
long bones |
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What type of bones develop by intramembranous ossification? |
flat bones |
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Name the cells that help long bones to continue to grow in diameter |
osteoblasts |
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At what site do long bones grow in length? |
epiphyseal plate/ epiphyseal cartilage/ growth plate |
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List the 4 zones of epiphyseal plate that show conversion of cartilage cells into bone after birth |
1. Zone of resting chondrocytes 2. Zone of proliferation or multiplication 3. Zone of hypertrophy or maturation 4. Zone of calcification |
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Name the organic and inorganic components found in bone |
33% Organic - collagen and glycosaminoglycans 67% Inorganic - calcium and phosphorus |
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greenstick fracture |
incomplete fracture one side is broken and other side is bent seen in young animals |
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3 Surgical options for hip dysplasia |
FHO - femoral head osteotomy TPO - triple pelvic osteotomy Total hip replacement |
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epiphyseal fracture |
fracture at the junction of epiphysis and diaphysis |
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simple fracture |
bone with one fracture line and two pieces |
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compound fracture |
bone with two or more fracture lines and three or more pieces broken end of bones breaks skin |
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What is important to achieve first intension healing? |
proper anatomical alignment rigid fixation compression |
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Name the 2 devices used to achieve first intension healing |
intramedullary pins (IM pins) bone plates |
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osteosarcoma |
malignant bone tumor |
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Main 6 characteristics of synovial or diarthrodial joints |
1. articular surfaces 2. articular cartilage 3. synovial cavity 4. synovial membrane 5. fibrous capsule 6. ligaments |
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Name of inner membrane that makes lining of joint capsule |
synovial membrane |
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function of synovial fluid |
1. lubricate joint 2. protect articular cartilage from friction heat 3. provide nutrition to articular cartilage |
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substances that provide lubrication quality to synovial fluid |
hylauronic acid (HA) glycoprotein lubrein |
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Characteristic features of normal synovial fluid |
viscous clear sticky slippery |
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Arthrocentesis |
aspiration of fluid from joints |
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What is OCD? |
osteochondritis dissicans problem in shoulder joint where a piece of cartilage chips off the humeral head and floats in joint cavity |
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What would happen if excessive pressure is applied constantly to a bone or no pressure is applied at all? |
atrophy of bone |
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What is margination? |
Tendency of WBCs to stay close to margin of vessel walls so that they could easily squeeze out whenever the body encounters infection |
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name 2 major plasma proteins |
albumin and globulin |
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plasma vs serum |
plasma - liquid portion of whole blood serum - liquid portion of clotted blood |
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thrombocytopenia |
most common bleeding disorder due to deficiency of platelets |
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function of platelets |
help in clotting blood |
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precursor cells of platelets |
megakaryocytes |
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What are antibodies chemically? |
gamma globulins |
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Name the cells that respond to an antigen by producing antibodies and are responsible from humoral immunity |
b-lymphocytes |
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Name the cells that provide cellular immunity to the body |
T-lymphocytes |
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Name the cells that become macrophages as they migrate to body tissues |
monocytes |
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what is hematocrit or packed cell volume |
percentage of RBCs by volume in sample of blood |
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name the cells that have more affinity to kill parasites |
monocytes |
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What factor initiates the extrinsic coagulation pathway? |
Tissue thromboplastin factor III |
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Name the cells that make the first line of defense against infections |
neutrophils |
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name the WBC that has the longest life span |
lymphocytes |
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What stimulates the kidney to release erythropoietic factor? |
hypoxia (lack of oxygen available to tissues) |
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Name the organ that releases erythropoietic factor |
kidney |
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What is erythropoiesis? |
formation of RBCs |
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regenerative anemia |
regenerative - When bone marrow responds to decrease in number of RBCs and releases increased number of immature blood cells into blood |
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non-regenerative anemia |
non-regenerative - bone marrow does not respond adequately or not at all so immature blood cells are not released into circulation in sufficient quantities |
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What is Anemia? |
deficiency of RBCs in circulation. |
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What is polycythemia? |
increased number of RBCs in circulation |
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Which connective tissue cells are functionally similar to basophils |
mast cells |
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What is the normal life span of RBCs in circulation? |
3-4 months |
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What blood type dogs are highly antigenic? |
DEA 1.1 and DEA 1.2 |
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What blood type dogs are considered universal donors? |
DEA 1.1, DEA 1.2, and DEA 7 negative |
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rouleaux vs autoagglutination |
rouleaux - clumping of RBCs stacked like a pile of coins autoagglutination - 3 dimensional clumping as seen with incompatible blood transfusion and Auto Immune Hemolytic Anemia (AIHA) |
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what is hemagglutination? |
clumping of RBCs |
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intravasular hemolysis vs extravascular hemolysis |
intravascular- Hemolysis of the RBCs may occur in the blood vessels due to some toxins, blood parasites, unmatched blood transfusion. extravascular - When RBCs engulfed by RE cells (phagocytes) and then disintegration of the RBCs occur inside those cells |
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What is hemolysis? |
destruction of RBCs |
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Condition that occurs due to excess bilirubin in the blood |
jaundice |
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What happens to bilirubin in the intestines? |
microflora convert it to bilinogen |
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biliverdin vs bilirubin |
biliverdin - is a green pigment bilirubin - is a yellow pigment. *biliverdin is reduced to bilirubin in the blood |
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What is coagulation? |
defense mechanism of the body to stop blood loss from a damaged vessel |
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Which cells remove dead RBCs from the blood? |
macrophages |
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What is viscous metamorphosis in platelets? When does it occur? |
change of shape in platelets Occurs when platelets come in contact with collagen and elastin due to injury to epithelium of vessels and these platelets become sticky and attach to each other |
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What is the effect of cyanide poisoning on oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin |
Cyanide poisoning does not affect the oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin, but interferes at the cellular level and cells can not utilize the oxygen. |
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How does carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning affect the oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin? |
CO occupies the spaces for attachment of oxygen on hemoglobin. Although the color of blood remains red as carboxyhemoglobin in cherry red in color |
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In cats, what medicine may cause formation of methemoglobin leading to Heinz body anemia? |
tylenol (acetaminophen) |
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name the ions that are found attached to heme |
Iron Ferric ions |
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Main component of RBCs that carry oxygen |
hemoglobin |
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name the blood cells that are non-nucleated |
RBCs and platelets |
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Name the most powerful anticoagulant that is also produced by mast cells? |
heparin |
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Name an anticoagulant, commonly used to collect blood for complete blood cell count (CBC) |
EDTA |
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What factor initiates the intrinsic coagulation pathway? |
Factor XII |
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Why Greyhounds are considered good blood donors? |
-PCV is very high -better chances of getting DEA 1.1 and DEA 1.2 negative blood |
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What are the substances released in blood due to disintegration of hemoglobin, once the RBCs die? |
Biliverdin, Globin and Iron |
