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86 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Define endocrine glands
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glands producing substances that are distributed by way of the bloodstream
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Define hormones
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Hormones are substances produced by body cells that circulate in body fluid and influence the activity of cells in another part of the body
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What response does epinephrine release incite?
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stimulates the heart, raises blood pressure, constricts small blood vessels, releases sugar stored in the liver, and relaxes certain involuntary muscles while it contracts others
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what are catecholamines?
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compounds that help regulate the sympathetic nervous system. Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine.
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what are vasopressors?
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substance that causes an increase in blood pressure
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Functions of epinephrine:
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increases metabolism, accelerates blood coagulation, bronchodilator, inhibits release of histamines triggered by allergic reactions, increases the strength of heart muscle contractions as well as theart rate.
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What is dopamine?
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hormone and neurotransmitter
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Dopamine's functions as a neurotransmitter:
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Activates dopamine receptore (D1-D5)
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Can dopamine cross the blood/brain barrier?
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No, it can't. Therefore when given as a drug it does not directly affect the CNS.
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What is the precurser to dopamine?
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L-DOPA, which can cross the blood/brain barrier. Given to PD patients.
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Dopamine biosynthesis:
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Adrenal medulla. L-DOPA->(DOPA decarboxylation)->dopamine and sometimes norepinephrine
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DOPA (Levodopa):
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an intermediate in dopamine biosynthesis. Clinically, used inmanagement of Parkinson's disease
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Homovanillic acid HVA:
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is a major catecholamine metabolite
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Vanillylmandelic acid VMA:
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is a metabolite of catecholamine. In timed urine tests the quantity (μg /24 h) is assessed, along with creatinine
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rickets: what is it? and cause
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softening of the bones in children potentially leading to fractures and deformity.
predominant cause is a vitamin D deficiency |
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Rickets, Symptoms:
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Bone pain or tenderness, dental problems, muscle weakness, fractures, hypocalcemia, bowed legs
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Rickets, Diagnosis:
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Serum Ca2+ may show low levels of Ca2+, serum P may be low, and serum alkaline phosphatase. Arterial blood gases may reveal metabolic acidosis may be high.
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hyperparathyroidism: definition
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overactivity of the parathyroid glands resulting in excess production of parathyroid hormone (PTH)
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Hyperparathyroidism: effects
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Overactivity of one or more of the parathyroid glands causes high calcium levels (hypercalcemia) and low levels of phosphorus in the bloo
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Hyperparathyroidism: Serum Calcium
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In cases of primary, tertiary hyperparathyroidism increased PTH consequently leads to increased serum calcium (hypercalcemia) due to:
increased bone resorption, allowing flow of calcium from bone to blood reduced renal clearance of calcium increased intestinal calcium absorption By contrast, in secondary and quartary hyperparathyroidism effectiveness of PTHis reduced. |
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Hyperparathyroidism: Symptoms
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high blood ca2+. neurological problems eg fatigue and tiredness, memory problems, depression, problems with concentration, and problems sleeping. Osteoperosis
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Hyperparathyroidism: Serum phosphorus
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In primary hyperparathyroidism, serum phosphorus levels are abnormally low as a result of decreased renal tubular phosphorus reabsorption. This contrasts with secondary hyperparathyroidism, in which serum phosphorus levels are generally elevated because of renal disease.
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Hyperparathyroidism: Alkaline phosphatase
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Alkaline phosphatase levels are elevated in all types of hyperparathyroidism.
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obstructive jaundice (cholestasis): Definition and causes
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an interruption to the drainage of bile in the biliary system.
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Obstructive jaundice: Causes
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Causes are gallstones in the common bile duct, and pancreatic cancer in the head of the pancreas. Also, liver flukes.
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Obstructive jaundice: symptoms
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pale stools and dark urine suggests an obstructive or post-hepatic cause as normal feces get their color from bile pigments. Patients often complain of severe itching.
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biliary cirrhosis: definition
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An autoimmune disease of the liver marked by the slow progressive destruction of the small bile ducts (bile canaliculi) within the liver
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biliary cirrhosis: causes
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bile builds up in the liver (cholestasis), This can lead to scarring, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and ultimately liver failure.
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biliary cirrhosis: symptoms
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fatigue, itchy skin, jaundice, cirrhosis, flid retention
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biliary cirrhosis: Diagnosis
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high alkaline phosphatase, elevated AST, ALT. Presence of certain antibodies:(the M2-IgG antimitochondrial antibody is the most specific test)
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viral hepatitis:
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Liver inflamation, may lead to cirrhosis or Hepatocellular carcinoma. Diagnoised via CT scan and biopsy
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infectious mononucleosis:
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spread through saliva, fever, sore throat, fatigue, splenomegaly. Atypical lymphocytes on the peripheral blood smear
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infectious mononucleosis: Diagnosis
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causes heterophile antibodies, which cause agglutination of non-human red blood cells, to appear in the patient's blood
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T3 resin uptake test
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measurement of the TGB that carry T3 throughout the bloodstream. The levels of these TBG are inversely proportional to T3.
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Free T3 and T4:
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Less than 1 percent are free, but this small percentage is responsible for all of the thyroid’s effects on metabolism.
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Bound T3 and T4:
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bound to plasma proteins, The bound hormone acts as a reservoir in the event it is needed.
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Thyroid-stimulating hormone immunoassay
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A direct measurement of TSH in the blood. This is the most sensitive test for detecting primary hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism.
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Free thyroxine immunoassay (FT4):
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A direct measurement of free T4. Can be affected by severe non-thyroid illness or by heparin.
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T4 test:
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A direct measurement of both free and protein-bound T4. Normal values range from 4.5 to 11.2 micrograms per deciliter. high=hyperthroidism
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Free thyroxine index (FTI or T7):
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A mathematical computation that allows the lab to estimate the free thyroxine index from the resin T3 and T4 uptake tests
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Elevated Calcitonin Levels:
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medullary thyroid cancer, azotemia, hypercalcemia, pernicious anemia, thyroiditis and pregnancy
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azotemia:
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too much urea in the blood,
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elevated serum thyroglobulin levels:
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patients with autoimmune thyroid disease, thyroid injury, inflammation of the thyroid or thyroid cancer.
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Thyroid antibody tests:
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detect the presence of antibodies against several thyroid compounds. Such antibodies are commonly found in Hashimoto disease and Graves' disease.
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T3 resin uptake test is a measure of:
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binding capacity of thyroxine-binding globulin
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Cortisol: Dinural variation
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Highest in the morning and lowest around midnight. Changed patterns indicate: abnormal ACTH levels, clinical depression, psychological stress, hypoglycemia, illness, trauma
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bilirubin: Definition
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a yellow breakdown product of normal heme catabolism. It is responsible for the yellow colour of bruises and the brown colour of feces
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Bilirubin: Biosynthesis
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Biliverdin, a product of heme breakdown, is converted to biliruben by biliverdin reductase
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Bilirubin: Toxicity
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neonatals are at risk for neuronal damage due to Kernicterus
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Bilirubin: function
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main physiologic role is as a cellular antioxidant
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Bilirubin: metabolism (spleen-liver)
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heme is converted to bilirubin in the spleen then bound to albumin and sent to the liver then conjugated with glucuronic acid, making it water soluble
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In the liver, bilirubin is converted to:
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bilirubin diglucuronide
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Bilirubin: metabolism (small and large intestine)
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Much goes into bile and into the small intestine. In the large intestine metabolized by bacteria into stercobilinogen and then oxidised to stercobilin
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Bilirubin: excretion
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Resorbed in LI and excreted in the urine as urobilinogen and the oxidised form, urobilin.
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Bilirubin blood tests
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broken down by light, and therefore blood collection tubes (especially serum tubes) should be protected from such exposure.
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Glomerular filtration rate (GFR): Definition
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the volume of fluid filtered from the renal glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule per unit time
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Creatinin Clearance (C.Cr): definition
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the volume of blood plasma that is cleared of creatinine per unit time used in estimating GFR
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Creatinin Clearance (C.Cr): Formula
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C.Cr= U.Cr*V/P.Cr
U=urine V=volume P=plasma |
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Serum: Definiton
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Plasma, but with clotting factors removed
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Plasma: Definiton
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the liquid component of blood, 55% of total volume. contains many vital proteins including fibrinogen, globulins and human serum albumin
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Fibrinogen: definition
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a clotting factor
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Biuret reaction: Definition
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potassium hydroxide (KOH) and copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4), together with potassium sodium tartrate turn from blue to violet in proteins
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Biuret reaction: Function
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a colorimetric assay used to determine protein concentration--such as UV-VIS at wavelength 560nm
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Hemoglobin: Definition
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The iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of the blood. Makes up about 97% of the red cell’s dry content.
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Total iron-binding capacity: definiton
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A test which measures the extent to which iron-binding sites in the serum can be saturated. Transferrin.
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Transferrin: Definition
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a blood plasma protein for iron ion delivery. Glycoprotein.
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Transferrin: Mechanism
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Binds two irons. Encounters transferrin receptor, transported into cell, removed iron. Affinity decreases with pH
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Transferrin: Function
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less than 0.1% (4 mg) of the total body iron. Highest turnover rate in the iron pool.
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ceruloplasmin: Definiton
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an enzyme synthesized in the liver containing 8 atoms of copper in its structure. Ceruloplasmin carries 90% of plasma copper
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Ceruloplasmin: Decreased levels indicate?
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Menkes disease-kinky hair
Wilson's disease Overdose of vitamin C Copper deficiency |
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Ceruloplasmin: Elevated levels indicate?
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pregnancy
lymphoma acute and chronic inflammation rheumatoid arthritis |
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ferritin: definition
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a globular protein. Main intracellular iron storage protein. Serum levels directly correlated with the total amount of iron stored
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urobilin: definiton
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a yellow linear tetrapyrrole, resulting from the breakdown of heme. generated in intestines from bilirubin.
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urobilinogen: definition
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a colourless product of bilirubin reduction.
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Urobilinogen: Biosynthesis
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It is formed in the intestines by bacterial action. in liver disease is converted to the yellow pigmented urobilin apparent in urine.
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stercobilinogen: Definition
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urobilinogen remaining in the intestine. Is oxidized to brown stercobilin which gives the feces their characteristic color
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azobilirubin: defintion
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Used in the In the Jendrassik-Grof method for serum bilirubin. Green color.
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bilirubin glucuronide: Definition
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Bilirubin conjugated with glucuronic acid to become water soluable.
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Absorbance (A)=
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log.10(I.o/I)=-log.10(T)=2-logT%
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Transmittance=
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I.0/I
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T%=
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(I/I.o)*100
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Aspartate aminotransferase : Definiton
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It facilitates the conversion of aspartate and alpha-ketoglutaric acid to oxaloacetate and glutamate.
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alanine aminotransferase: Definition
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catalyzes transfer of amino group from alanine to a-ketoglutarate, the products of this reversible transamination reaction being pyruvate and glutamate.
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alanine aminotransferase: Elevated levels indicate?
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viral hepatitis, congestive heart failure, liver damage, biliary duct problems, infectious mononucleosis, or myopathy. ALT is commonly used screening for liver problems
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Aspartate aminotransferase: Elevated levels indicate?
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acute liver damage
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pregnanetriol: Definiton
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precursor in the biosynthesis of the adrenal hormone cortisol
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