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240 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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which monosaccharides make MALTOSE |
glucose + glucose |
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which monosaccharides make LACTOSE |
glucose + galactose |
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which monosaccharides make SUCROSE |
glucose + fructose |
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what kind of sugar is glucose |
hexose sugar |
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monosaccharides join to make disaccharides and polysaccharides with what bonds |
glycocidic bonds |
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name test for sugars |
benedicts test |
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method of testing for sugars |
1) add benedicts reagent 2) heat to boil 3) +ve is red if negative 4) add HCL to break poly to mono 5) boil 6) add NaOH to neutralise 7) do benedicts test again |
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name 3 polysaccharides |
starch glycogen cellulose |
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what is starch |
plans excess glucose storage |
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what reaction breaks polysaccharides |
hydrolysis |
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what reaction makes polysaccharides |
condensation |
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what is the test for starch called |
iodine test |
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how do you test for starch |
add idodine dissolved in potassium iodide +ve change from orange/brown to blue/black |
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what is glycogen |
excess glucose storage in animals has many side braches to can be released quickly not common- main energy storage is fats |
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what is cellulose |
long unbranched chain of beta glucose straight chains linked by hydrogen bonds to form microfibrils stuctural support |
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monosaccharide + monosaccharide = |
disaccharide |
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disaccharide + monosaccharide = |
polysaccharide |
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what is a triglyceride |
one glycerol with 3 fatty acids attached structure of fatty acid tails vary |
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how are triglycerides formed and what bond |
condensation reaction esther bond |
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what makes triglycerides saturated/undaturated |
fatty acid tail saturated- no double bond unsaturated- one or more double bonds |
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what is a fatty acid tail |
hydrocarbon chain hydrophobic |
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what makes lipids insoluble |
hydrophobic hydrocarbon/fatty acid tail |
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what is a phospholipid |
glycerol with two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached |
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where are phospholipids found and why |
cell membranes phosphate head is hydrophilic and fatty acid tail is hydrophobic so form a phospholipid bilayer |
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name the test for lipids |
emulsion test |
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how do you test for lipids |
1) add ethanol 2) pour into water 3) +ve is a milky emulsion 4) more lipid- more emulsion |
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use of lipids other than membrabe and why |
source of energy fatty acid tails contain many bonds so lots of energy is released when they are broken so contain more energy than carbohydrates per gram |
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lipids are insoluble why is this useful |
dont affect water potential and cause cells to burst via osmosis |
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what are lipids soluble in |
inorganic solvents |
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how many types of fatty acid are there |
70 |
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amino acid + amino acid = |
dipeptide |
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dipeptide + amini acid = |
polypeptide |
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structure of amino acid |
amine group (NH2), carboxyl group (COOH), lone hydrogen and an R group/ residual side group |
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describe primary protien structure |
sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain |
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describe secondary structure of a protien |
hydrogen bonds, polypeptide chain coils into an alpha helix/beta pleated sheet |
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describe tertiary structure of proteins |
hydrogen bonds ionic bonds disulphide bridges form a more coiled 3D structure/globular protein |
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describe a quartinery structure of a protein |
multiple chains held together by all bonds in tertiary |
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4 protein uses |
enzymes antibodies transport protiens structural/channel proteins |
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name test for proteins |
biuret test |
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how do you test for proteins |
1) add NaOH 2) add CuSO4 solution 3) +ve goes purple,-ve stays blue |
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what are enzymes |
proteins which are biological catalyst that lower the activation energy of a reaction theyvcan be intra/exra cellular have specific active site due to tertiary structure which substrate binds to to form an enzyme substrate complex |
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what do enzymes do to substrates and how |
1) join two by holding them close and reducing repulsion so they can bond easily 2) break into two substrates as active site causes strain on bond so breaks easily |
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describe induced fit model |
substrate has to be right shape and make active site right shape when enzyme substrate complex forms |
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describe the lock and key model |
substrate and actuve site right fit |
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list properties of enzymes |
specific and catalyse one reaction different tertiary structure means different active site tertiary structure is altered be changes in temp, pH, etc |
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how do mutations affect enzyme production |
primary structure determined by gene if mutation in gene could change tertiary structure of enzyme produced |
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describe effect of temp on enzyme activity |
rise makes more vibrations so more collisions more enzyme substrate complexes so faster rate of reaction if abouve certain temp enzymes denature because tertiary structure changes shape so active site changes shape so substrate wont fit |
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describe the effect of pH on enzyme activity |
most work best at 7 pepsin works best at 2 because it is found in the stomach abouve and below optimum pH OH- and H+ ions mess up ionic and hydrogen bonds changing tertiary structure changing active site denatured |
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dedcribe effect of enzyme concentration |
more enzyme means faster ror until more enzyme than substrate so levels off |
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describe substrate concentration effects |
more substrate means more collisions until saturation where all enzyme active sites are full then levels off |
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what is competitive inhibition |
inhibitor same shape as substrate so fits in active site but no reaction so no substrate can fit in more inhibitor means less enzyme substrate complex more substrate means more enzyme substrate complexes |
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what is non competitive inhibition |
inhibitor binds to side of enzyme causes active site to change shape substrate cant bind increasing substrate has no effect |
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how do you calculate rate of reaction |
tangent then gradient |
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what is a nucleotide |
nitrogen containing organic base with pentose sugar and phosphate group |
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list 5 bases |
adenine guanine cytosine thymine uracil |
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A pairs with? and how many hydrogen bonds |
Thymine in DNA uracil in RNA 2 bonds |
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guanine pairs with? and how many hydrogen bonds |
cytosine 3 bonds |
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nucleotides join to form ? which joins pentose sugar and phosphate with what bonds to form what |
polynucleotides phosphodiesther bonds sugar phosphate back bone |
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describe DNA structure |
double helix with gydrogen bonds between bases complimentary base pairing two strands run anti parallel 3 prime and 5 prime |
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describe structure and types of RNA |
single chain mRNA made in transcription, carries code to ribosomes tRNA used in translation, carries amino acids to ribosomes |
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who discovered DNA and when |
watson and crick 1953 |
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describe DNA function and why |
pass on genetic information stable and rarely mutates 2 strands can seperate for DNA replication large molecule so more information |
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how does DNA replicate |
semi conservative replication |
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when does DNA replicate |
before cell division |
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which enzyme seperates the strand of DNA and what bonds does it break |
DNA helicase hydrogen bonds |
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describe DNA replication |
strands unwind act as a template free floating DNA nucleotides are attracted to the two strands and complimentary base pairing takes place condensation reactions with DNA polymerase join the nucleotides 2 new strands contain one original and one new |
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what is conservative replication |
two old strands would stay together |
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who proved the semiconservative replication |
meselson and stahl |
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hiw did they prove smeicinsevative replication |
N15 and N14 initial DNA containing N14 settles at top of tube N15 replicates in N14 broth then centrifuge semi meant 1 line in middle conservative would be 2 |
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water use |
metabolite solvent temp control cohesive so transport |
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describe structure of water |
H2O polar H+ O- |
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high latent heat of vapourisation |
lots of energy to break bonds so lots of energy is used to evaporate it useful as cools when sweating |
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water buffer |
hydrogen bonds absorb energy so hight specifuc heat capacity so water doesnt have rapid tem changes so maintains constant body temp |
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water as a solvent |
things can dissolve in it like inoganic ions |
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water is cohesive |
helps flow good gor transporting high surface tension |
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what is ATP |
a phosphorilated molecule adenine base with ribose sugar and 3 phosphate groups |
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what is ADP |
adenine ribose 2 phospate hydrolysis from ATP |
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AMP? |
adenine ribose 1 phospate |
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adenosine |
adenine ribose |
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when does ADP to ATP occur |
1) chlorophyll- photophsophrilation 2) respiration in plant and animal cells- oxidative phosphoylation 3) in plant and animal cells when phosphate groups are transferred from donor molecules- substrate level phoshorylation |
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how does ATP work |
energy released when phosphate broken off in hydrolysis fast catalysed by ATP hydrolase |
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ATP formation |
catalysed by ATP synthase phosphate ion and ADP fast |
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use of FE2+ ions |
haemoglobin 4 polypeptide chains with one fe each o2 makes fe3+ for a bit |
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use of H+ ions |
more h+ lower ph |
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Na+ ion use |
cotransport of glucose and amino acids |
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use of PO4 3- ions |
ATP DNA RNA |
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eukaryotic cells |
animal and plant nucleus cell surface membrane ER |
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prokaryotic |
circular DNA bacterium slime capsule |
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plant cell |
celulose cell wall vacuole chloroplasts |
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algal and fungal cells |
like plant cells fungal have chitin cell wall and no chloroplasts |
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cell surface membrane |
made of lipids and protein regulates movement of substances receptor molecules |
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nucleus |
nuclear envelope pores protein bound DNA nucleolus conrol cell activity instructions for proteins makes ribosomes |
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mitochondrion |
double membrane inner folded into cristae filled with matrix contains enzymes for respiration site of areobic respiration active so more energy |
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chloroplast |
double membrane thykaloids- stacked up form grana linked by lamellae photosynthesis takes place |
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golgi |
fluid filled sacs vesicles at edge of sacs processes and packages lipids and proteins makes lysosomes |
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vesicle |
stores lipids and protiens takes out of cell |
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lysosome |
no structure contains lysozymes digestive enzymes |
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ribosome |
protein synthesis |
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ER |
rough- ribosomes folds and processes proteins smooth- lipids |
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cell wall |
made of cellulose support |
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vacuole |
cell sap membrane called tonoplast maintain pressure |
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prokaryotic structure |
no membrane bound organelles plasma membrane cell wall capsule palsmids loop of DNA circular DNA |
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virus |
a cellular nucleic acid surrounded by proteins invade and reproduce protein capsid attatchment proteins |
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binary fission |
DNA replicates move to poles divides to 2 identical daughter cells |
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virus replication |
host cell by attatchment proteins virus to only one type of cell |
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light microscopes |
light to form image 0.2 micrometres |
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electron microscopes |
higher resolution 0.0002 micrometres |
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transmission microscope |
electro magnets see internal structure only thin specimens |
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scanning microsocpe |
electron beam 3D surface only thick specimines lower res |
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cell fractionation |
homoginisation filtration ultracentrifugation |
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mitosis |
pmat |
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interphase |
cell normal functions DNA doubles |
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prophase |
chromosomes condense visable centrioles move to opposite ends of cell form spindle fibres nuclear envelope breaks down |
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metaphase |
chromosomes line up along equator become attatched to fibres |
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anaphase |
centromeres divide seperating chromatid pairs spindles vontract bringing chromatid to poles |
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telophase |
uncoil to thin and invisible nuclear envelope forms 2 nuclei cytopladm splits 2 identical daughter cells |
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cancer |
uncontrolled cell division |
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mitotic index |
chromosomes÷total |
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artefact |
dust etc |
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fluid mosaic structure |
bilayer is fluid has cholesterol proteins- channel and carrier allow large molecules receptor proteins react to hormones lipids have polysaccharide chain called glycolipids |
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cholesterol use |
makes membrane more ridgid maintain shape |
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diffusion |
net movement from high to low conc passive |
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facilitated diffusion |
carrier protiens large molecules passive |
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osmosis |
diffusion of water from high to low water potential |
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isotionic |
sam ewater potential |
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when % change in mass is 0 |
water potential of sucrose is same at potato |
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active transport |
active uses ATP agains conc gradient |
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co transport |
2 molecules at same time conc gradient of one is used to move the other against its own |
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glucose enters ileum with |
sodium |
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phagocytosis |
foreighn or non self antigen trigger immune response 1) phagocytes engulf 2)recognises non self 3)pathogen engulfed and contained 4)in phagocitic vacuole 5)lysozymes break down 6)phagocye presents pathogen antibodies for lymphocytes to detect |
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t cells |
activated by phagocytes receptor proteins bind to complementary antigens t helper- release chmeical signals to activate phagocytes and t killers an b cells t killers- kill abnormal cells eg infected body cells |
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b cells |
covered in antibodies bind to antigens clonal selection divides into plasma cells |
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plasma cells |
make antibodies monoclonal antibodies |
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antibody |
2 binding sites specific proteins 2 light chains 2 heavy joined by disulphid bridges |
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aglutination |
antibodies clump to several antigens at a time and surround pathogen marker for phagocyte |
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immune response |
cellular t cells etc humoral b cells clonial selection antibody production |
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primary response |
antigen activates immune system slow not many b cells after exposure t and b memory cells produced remain in the body immune |
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secondary immune response |
same pathogen quick response dues to memory cells |
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vaccine |
dead or inactive antigens with out cauding disease |
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herd immunity |
mass immunity less people to catch from |
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antigenuc variation |
pathogens can change shape of antigens by random mutation so not triggering memory cells |
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passive immunity |
natural baby milk from mother arteficial antibody injection |
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active immunity |
natural immune after catching arteficial immune after vaccine |
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cabcer treatment with monoclonal antibodies |
attatch drug to antibody antibody attatch to mutated cell |
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pregnancy testing |
detect hcg found in pregnant women antibodies attatched to blue bead urine carries beads due to antigen antibody complex strip turns blue |
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elisa |
see if patient has certain antibodies 1) hiv antigen to bottom of well plate 2) sample added and wash 3) hiv antibodies will bind 4) seconary antibody added 5) wash 6) add substrate with colour 7) if present will be colour change |
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hiv |
core contains genetic material protein capsid envelope made of stolen membrane attatchment proteins attatch to t helper |
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hiv replication |
attatch to receptor capsid release RNA make dna fron the rna dna inserted into human dna viral proteins assembeled and sent out |
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counter current flow |
water enters gill fillaments with lamellae with capilaries large sa blood flow in one direction water in opposite maintains diffusion gradient |
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insects |
air moves into trachea through surface pores called spiracles O2 travels along conc gradient to cells CO2 moves back to spiracles |
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dictotyledonus plants |
main gas exchange is mesophyll cells on leaf surface gas moves in and out via stomata pores guard cells controll opening of stomata |
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control water loss |
insects- waxy coating close spiracles tiny hairs around them plants- stoma open in day water enters guard cell making them turgid opening the stomata for water loss |
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gas exchange in humans |
trachea bronchi bronchles alveoli |
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inspriration |
inter corstal muscles contract increase volume air pulled in |
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expiration |
muscles relax air forced out |
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lung disease |
tb-damages gas exchange surface fibrosis- scar tissue asthma- inflammation emphysema- inflammation attracts phagocytes break down elastin |
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carbohydrates broken down by what |
amalayse produced in slaivary glands |
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lipid broken down by what |
lipase produced in pancreas eork in small intestine lipd and bile salts produced in liver emulsify lipid broken down and fatty acids stick with bile salts to form micelles |
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protein break down |
endopeptides within protein pepsin exopeptides at ends remove single amino acids cell surface membrane |
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micelles function |
move monoglycerides to epithilium |
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heamoglobin |
quartinery structure protien 4 chains with heam group wit hfe ion attatched |
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partial pressure of oxygen |
measure of oxygen concentration |
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raise in CO2 |
low affinity for oxygen |
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vein to kidneys |
renal vein |
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arteries |
from heart thick muscle elastic tissue to recoil maintain high pressure folded inner lining to stretch |
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vein |
to heart low pressure little elastic muscle valves prevent back flow thick muscle |
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capillaries |
one cell thik good diffusion |
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tissue fluid |
hydrostatic pressure high than in fluid near arteries forces fluid out reduce pressure so lower at end of capillary bed so lower water potential so fluid reenters some fluid drained to lymphatic system |
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heart |
pulmonry artery aorta vena cava pulonary vein right atrium left atrium semi lunar valves atrioventricular valves right ventricle left ventricle |
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heart properties |
left more muscle powerful pump blood out ventricles thicker have to push blood out av valves stop back flow to atria sl valves stop back flow to heart chords stop valves being forced open |
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atheroma |
damage to artery white blood cells clump and lipids fiborous plaque forms |
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aneurysm |
increase blood pressure due to atheroma form sac burst sac |
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thrombis |
plaque rupture damage artey blood clots |
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high chloesterol |
reafily for atheromas high salt high blood pressure |
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nicotine |
high bp |
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xylem |
water and mineral ions long no end walls formed from dead cells |
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chesion and tension |
water moves up plants 1)evaporate at top 2) tension/suction so water forced up tube 3) cohesive so pull each other up 4) water enters roots |
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transpiration |
water evaporates and acumilates at leaf stomata open water moves down leaf conc gradient and out |
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phloem |
organic substances sieve tubes living cells that form tube have few organelles so there are companion cell for each sieve tube element provide energy for active transport |
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translocation |
movement of solutes active move from sources to sinks made to used enzymes maintain conc gradient at sink by breaking down/converting the solute that arrives |
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mass flow hypothesis |
active transport lowers water potential in sieve tubes so osmosis from xylem high pressure at source at sink solutes are removed increasing water potential osmosis to xylem lowers pressure pressure gradient moves solutes to sink |
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linear DNA |
long so has to be wound up wound around proteins-histones help support DNA coiled tightly to make a compact chromosome |
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super coiling |
DNA compaction in circular DNA |
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genome |
complete set of genes in the cell |
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proteome |
full range of proteins cell can produce |
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intron |
doesnt code for amino acids |
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exon |
codes for amino acids |
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allele |
different form of a gene |
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mRNA |
has codeons codes for maino acids at ribosome |
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tRNA |
hydrogen bonds between pairs hold its shape carries an amino acid and an anti codon |
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transcription |
mRNA copy made RNA polymerase unzips DNA used as template t replaced by u when RNA polymerase reaches stop triplet it detatches and mRNA stops being made |
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transcription pt 2 |
introns and exons are copied into mRNA so splicing occurs leaving exons mRNA leaves the nucleus |
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translation |
mRNA attatches to ribosome tRNA carry amino acids to it ATP provides energy for bond to form tRNA anticodon complimentary to mRNA codeon attatches to mRNA second pair do the same amino acids are then joined by peptide bond tRNA molecules move away makes chain until stop codeon |
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genetic code |
non overlapping base used once degenerate more combinations tgan amino acids so some code for same universal same triplets code for the amino acid in all living things |
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gametes |
sex cell passes DNA down haploid |
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meiosis |
gametes made dna replicates double armed chromosomes made from 2 sister chromatids joined by centromere homologous pairs line up crossing over takes place sperated halving chromosome number chromatids are seperated centromere divided 4 haploid genetically different cells are made |
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independant segrigation |
random seperation of the mother father homologous pairs so random which chromatids end ul with which |
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chromosome mutation cause |
error in cell division |
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substitution |
one base for another not always a problem due to degenerate code |
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deletion |
one base deleted every triplet after has changed so completely different amino acids |
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mutagenic agents |
radiation chemicals viruses |
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genetic diversity inceased by |
lots of alleles mutation |
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genetic bottle neck |
most of population dies smaller gene pool |
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behavioural adaptation |
actions |
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psychological adaptaion |
processes in body that increase chance of survival |
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anatomical adaptation |
structural features of body |
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directional selection |
characteristics of and extreme are more likely to survive |
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stabilising selection |
middle of range more likely to survive |
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aseptic techniques |
disinfect near bunsen sterilise loop flame bottle neck |
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phylogeny |
evolutionary history of organisms |
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taxonimy |
classification |
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classification list |
domain kingdom phylum class order family genus species digest king prawn curry or fat greasy sausages |
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binomial naming system |
genus, species |
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gonome sequencing |
dna sequence can be determined and compared |
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amino acid sequence comparison |
similar dna means similar amino acid sequence |
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immunological comparisons |
similar proteins will bind to similar antibodies |
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biodiversity |
variety of different organisms in an area |
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habitat |
where organism lives |
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community |
all populations of different species in a habitat |
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species richness |
number of species in an community |
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monoclonal antibodies |
produces from single group of same b cells identical can bind to anything eg to cancer cells which have tumor markers so make monoclonal antibodies attatch to those few side affects |
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ethical issues of vaccination |
animal testing human testing can result in altercations risk of side effects |
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hiv causes aids how |
deteriorates the immune system by targeting t helper cells |
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antibiotics dont work on viruses? |
interfere with metaboluc reactions of bacteria by targeting the ribosomes and enzymes this is because those bacteria and enzymes are different to that of a humans viruses use host cells ribosomes and enzymes making them uninhibitable by antibiotics |
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smaller animals have a ...... sa:v |
higher |
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rate of heat loss is affected by |
size |
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tidal volume |
volume of air in each breath 0.4-0.5 dm3 |
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ventilation rate |
number of breaths per min 15ish |
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forced expiratory volume |
max air breathed out in 1 sec |
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forced vital capacity |
max air to be forcefully breathed out of the lungs after a really deep breath in |
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spiriometer |
used to wok out tidal wave etc |
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monoglyceride |
glycerol with one fatty acid |
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vena cava |
deoxygenated to the heart from body |
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pulmonry artery |
deoxygenated to lungs from heart |
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pulmonry vein |
oxygenated from lungs to heart |
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aorta |
oxygenated to body from heart |
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cardiac cycle |
diastole atrial systole ventricular systole |
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diastole |
blood into atria high pressure atrioventricular valves open all walls relaxed semi lunar valves close due to pressure change |
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atrial systole |
artia contract ventricles relax small volume incresed pressure in atrias blood pushed into ventricles |
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ventricular systole |
atria relax ventricles contract atrioventricular valves close semi lunar valves open blood to arteries |
