Apush 15 Essentials To Studying History

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1. Von Ranke’s Historicism

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German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886) is considered the father of the
modern objective historical school. His method was to reconstruct the past without
letting our present biases get in the way. To do that, Ranke insisted on the use of
contemporary accounts that enabled historians to get as close to the source as
possible. Document-based history, for example, is a product of Von Ranke’s
approach.

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2. Primary and Secondary Sources

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As we research the past we make use of sources from the period of time we are
studying (primary) such as documents, letters, images, diaries, contemporary
accounts, etc., and sources written after the events (secondary), such as textbooks.

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3. Euro-centrism vs. American Distinctiveness

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A fundamental starting point for understanding our history centers on the debate
between those who view the American experience as essentially an offshoot of
Europe and those who see our development as something distinct from Europe.

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4. Causality

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Causality is the relationship between an event (the cause) and a second event (the
effect), where the second event is a consequence of the first. As we explore history
we attempt to understand this pattern.

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5. Periodization

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Periodization is a tool that historians use to impose a pattern on the past by dividing
time into named blocks. The result is a descriptive abstraction that provides a useful
handle on periods of time with relatively stable characteristics. However,
determining the precise beginning and ending to any "period" is often a matter of
debate.

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6. Hegelian Dialectic

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The Hegelian Dialectic refers to an interpretive method, originally used to relate
specific entities or events to the absolute idea, in which an assertable proposition
(thesis) is necessarily opposed by its apparent contradiction (antithesis), and both
reconciled on a higher level of truth by a third proposition (synthesis). Also called the
Hegelian Triad, it offers us a pattern with which to view historical progression.

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7. Zeitgeist

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Zeitgeist is "the spirit of the times" or "the spirit of the age.” Zeitgeist is the general
cultural, intellectual, ethical, spiritual, and/or political climate within a nation or
even specific groups, along with the general ambience, morals, sociocultural
direction or mood of an era (similar to the English word mainstream or trend).

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8. Determinism vs. Contingency in history:

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Determinism is the idea that events are determined, that is to say must be as they
are and as they will be, in virtue of some laws or forces which necessitate their being
so – that events are inevitable. An example of this concept being applied to the
study of history and society is economic determinism as formulated by Marx.
Contingency, on the other hand, argues that any historical situation is as likely to be
shaped by particular circumstances (contingencies) as by any general structures,
rules, or frameworks. Our understanding, therefore, depends as much on looking at
the peculiarities of the case as at the general conditions in which it occurs.

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Determinism

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Determinism is the idea that events are determined, that is to say must be as they
are and as they will be, in virtue of some laws or forces which necessitate their being
so – that events are inevitable. An example of this concept being applied to the
study of history and society is economic determinism as formulated by Marx.

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Contingency

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Contingency, on the other hand, argues that any historical situation is as likely to be
shaped by particular circumstances (contingencies) as by any general structures,
rules, or frameworks. Our understanding, therefore, depends as much on looking at
the peculiarities of the case as at the general conditions in which it occurs.

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9. Historiography

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Historiography is the study of varying interpretations of the past. Part of our
understanding of the past is the ability to grasp such varying interpretations of a
period of time or significant event. History is not static, but rather continues to
evolve.

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10. 5 Basic Philosophies of History

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Cyclical or Fatalist View of History:

Providential View:

Progressive View:

Historical Materialism View:

Post-Modern View:

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Cyclical or Fatalist View of History:

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This is the idea that “history repeats itself” and
that we continually see the same things over and over throughout time. In some
respects this view downplays the role that human beings can actually play in shaping
events. This idea was originally put forward by the ancient Greeks.

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Providential View:

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The Christian view of history is that history has a starting point
and a goal and developments are moving in a linear fashion toward that goal. God is
the prime actor in the Providential view of history.

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Progressive View:

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Stemming from the Enlightenment worldview, this view of history
places MANKIND in the center. History is moving in a straight line, but it is the
human being that drives society toward greater and greater progress. Associate
Hegel with this idea.

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Historical Materialism View:

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Marx asserted that material forces drive human history
and that class struggle is central to the development of human society – i.e. those
that control the forces of production (bourgeoisie) and the workers (proletariat) will
inevitably clash, leading to a classless society.

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Post-Modern View:

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One of the main characteristics of postmodern thinking is that
the world is seen as a much more complex and uncertain place. Reality is no longer
fixed or determined. All truth within a postmodern context is relative to one’s
viewpoint or stance (called “relativism”). The world is a representation. In other
words, it is a fiction created from a specific point of view only, and not a final truth.
The application of post-modernism to the study of history, of course, creates great
uncertainty about “accepted” views of past events.

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11. History and Memory

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History is the formal study of the past using the techniques of the historian, while
memory is “felt” history – less formal but important in the collective mind of the
culture. While it is impossible to locate the absolute “truth” in history, we need to
utilize both history and memory as we pursue the past, realizing the difficulties with
both.

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12. Revisionism

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Revisionism is a central tenet of historical scholarship. It is the unending search for
fresh material, sources and interpretations of the past. The debates which develop
out of revised interpretations of the past are essential to the field of history.

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13. Counterfactual History

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Many writers, and some historians, have speculated over the momentous "What Ifs"
of humanity's shared experience and have attempted to depict the resulting scenario
if "this" had happened rather than "that" at key turning points of history. Such
speculations have been described as alternate history, virtual history or
counterfactual history. While some critics of this approach dismiss it as a "parlor
game" it may be that we can learn valuable lessons from such a process. Certain
events that actually occurred may have only done so to some extent by chance and
when we seek to explore what we think of as an alternative outcome we are actually
attempting to explore an outcome that could possibly have happened.

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14. Thomas Kuhn and Paradigm Shifts:

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A paradigm is a set of ideas about something. It
is common today to hear people use the term in reference to a variety of disciplines.
For example, there are educational, economic, scientific, and medical paradigms.
Each paradigm holds particular beliefs about what is true, what is effective, what is
valuable, etc., in regards to its discipline. The term paradigm shift was first used by
Thomas Kuhn in his book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962). Kuhn was
talking about how scientific developments change the perspectives with which we
view the world and give rise to new historic ages. For example, the scientific
discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton dramatically changed our perspective on the nature
of the physical world and our place in it, giving rise to the industrial revolution and,
subsequently, our new modern age of science and technology. Historians have
applied Kuhn’s analysis to the study of change.

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15. Historiography of American History: 8 Schools

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 Providential History: 1600s

 Rationalist History: 1700s

 Nationalist History: Middle and latter 1800s

 Progressive History: Early 1900s through the 1940s

 Consent and Consensus History: Late 1940s through the 1980s

 Conservative History: 1950s in the present period

 New Left History: 1960s and 70s

 Transnational History: 1990s and beyond (loosely defined)

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 Providential History: 1600s

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History is a holy chronicle that reveals God’s providence toward his chosen
people and their efforts to build a New Canaan in the wilderness of North
America. “American Exceptionalism” stems from this early interpretation.
Representative author: John Winthrop.

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 Rationalist History: 1700s

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The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment changed the way intellectuals
began to see history. History, like the physical universe, is subject to natural
law. Self-interest and reason are the great motivators of men, not faith.
Representative author: Thomas Jefferson.

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 Nationalist History: Middle and latter 1800s

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The three great themes of history are progress, liberty, and Anglo-Saxon destiny
(and ultimately, superiority over indigenous people). The march of history
corresponds with the spread of American democratic institutions throughout the
world and culminates at home in Jacksonian Democracy. Representative
historian: George Bancroft.

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 Progressive History: Early 1900s through the 1940s

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American history is characterized by a struggle between the “power elite” and
the “people” (conflict theory). Liberals and progressives are the “good guys”
because they are moving the nation closer to the liberal democratic state. Race,
gender, and ethnic conflicts are not as important as political and economic
conflicts in this view. Representative historians: Charles Beard, Frederick
Turner, and Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.

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 Consent and Consensus History: Late 1940s through the 1980s

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The shared ideas of Americans are more important than the conflicts and our
history is characterized by a general continuity of ideas and ideological
narrowness. We generally have been held together by general prosperity and a
universal acceptance of the ideas embodied in the Declaration of Independence.
Representative historians: Richard Hofstadter and Daniel Boorstin.

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 Conservative History: 1950s in the present period

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History is largely about moral interpretation and should promote the more
traditional aspects of society. Freedom and property are closely linked and
political problems, ultimately, are religious and moral problems. History is a
vehicle for promoting patriotism within America and therefore powerful people
and institutions should be emphasized. The neo-conservative movement of the
1970s and beyond draws its inspiration from this school both the Consensus and
Conservative schools. Representative historian: Russell Kirk.

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 New Left History: 1960s and 70s

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History should be studied from the “bottom up” and the forgotten voices of
history should be celebrated. The American story includes dark chapters (i.e.
slavery and Indian removal) and these aspects of our past need to be explored.
Using history to promote blind patriotism to the nation is not useful.
Representative historian: Howard Zinn.

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 Transnational History: 1990s and beyond (loosely defined)

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Historians should break from the focus on the nation-state and view history from
a comparative and cross-cultural perspective. Complex migration patterns and
economic globalization have accelerated the need for understanding an
increasingly diverse American society in a global context. Focusing on the lives
of the people (social history) is part of this movement. Representative historian:
Jeremi Suri.