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76 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Approaches |
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What are the main assumptions of the behaviourist approach? |
-Main assumption that allbehaviour can be learned -only the observable behaviour is important -we are born as blank slate -human behaviour can be understood by observing animal behaviour |
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What is behaviourism and conditioning? |
Behaviourism- the theory that animal and human behaviour can be explained through conditioning Conditioning- process in which a response gets more frequent as result of a surrounding environment |
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What are the 2 different types of conditioning? |
Classical conditioning- Learning by association. When you associate aneural stimulus with an innate response to another stimulus so eventually thatstimulus will affect the response. Operant conditioning- A from of learning where behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences |
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What is an example of Classical conditioning? |
Pavlov’s dogs: -Ivan Pavlov was physiologist and used classical conditioningin experiment -his dogs began salivating every time he entered room with or without food -after this he carried out an experiment where he would ring a bell every timehe gave dogs food -they began to salivate when hearing the bell -Therefore the food was the UCS and the salivation was the UCR. When the bell was bring in with the food the bell was the NS and food and salivation kept the same. Eventually the dog associated the bell with food and therefore salivated when he heard a bell ring. Thus the bell is CS and salivation is CR |
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What is the process of classical conditioning? |
UCS------------> UCR UCS+NS ----------> UCR CS------------------> CR |
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How can classical conditioning have real-life application? |
Phobias: Using classical conditioning it is possible to cause a phobia: -Watson taught a baby to have a fear of furry animals like rabbits -started by putting a rat in front of baby and making loud sound every time -eventually baby associates animal with scary loud sound so gets scared To unlearn a phobia: -systematic desensitisation -boy has a fear of heights -relaxes every time he gets higher -draws a hierarchy of fear and eventually associates relaxing with height |
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What are the main assumptions of operant conditioning? |
-All behaviour is learned -behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences -this includes reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment -BF Skinner’s work supports operant conditioning (father of it) |
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What is an example of operant conditioning ? |
In Skinners experiment: -he put a rat in a box -in one situation he used positive reinforcement; if the rat pressed on a leverthen a food pellet was delivered, the rat learned from this to press lever -he used negative reinforcement: rat given electric shock, when they pressedlever it stopped so the rat learned to press lever |
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What is positive & negative reinforcement and punishment? |
Positive reinforcement- rewarding a certain behaviour and is therefore repeated e.g praise from a teacher for answering correct Q Negative reinforcement- occurs when animals or humans avoids something unpleasant. Behaviour happens when a good thing happens due to bad behaviour stopping so the bad behaviour stops. e.g a student hands in an essay not to be told off Punishment- An unpleasant consequence from behaviour e.g. shouted by teacher from talking |
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Evaluate Pavlov's and Skinners theory |
Strengths: -real life application eg treating phobias -high control lab settings so high validity and replicability Weaknesses: -ignoremental processes which play a part, apply less to humans than animals -Ethical and practical issue of using animals |
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What is the evaluation of the behaviourist approach? |
Behaviourism advantages: -Scientific credibility- all studies are replicable and have high external validity and internal reliability as high control - Real life application- token economy in prisons or hospitals- do something right and get a tokenwhich can buy things Disadvantages: -ignores the chemical inbalance of the brain you cannot prevent mental illnesses- incomplete -Environmental determinist- assumes people have no free will as everything determined by upbringing andnurturing -animals aren’t same as human beings, same things can’t be shown using them - Ethical issues with hurting animals |
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What are the main assumptions of SLT? |
-you can’t do research onanimals to understand humans -you have to be active to learn things -learn by watching people (vicarious reinforcement) |
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What is vicarious reinforcement? |
It is a form of indirect learning. It is behaviour learnt through observation of someone else being reinforced for a behaviour |
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What are the 2 different types of models? |
Live model- people present in our environment e.g parents Symbolic models- people present in the media e.g celebrities |
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How is identification relevant to SLT and specifically role models ? |
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like them |
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What is a meditational process? |
It is steps of thinking that influence learning and thought between a stimulus and a response |
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What are the 4 meditational process steps for modelling to occur? |
1) Attention- noticing the behaviour 2) Retention- remembering the behaviour 3) Motor reproduction- Is it physically possible 4) Motivation- There has to be a reason to do the behaviour- role models |
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What's the main study of SLT? |
Bandura's study Albert Bandura in 1961 investigated if social behaviour canbe acquired through observation. He showed an adult being aggressive to a bobodoll to one group of children and observed how they became more aggressive too.Another model played/ignored doll and caused children too. Children learnedthrough watching and showed vicarious reinforcement . |
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Evaluate Bandura's study |
Strengths: - High control of variables - Replicable Weaknesses: - Artificial setting so lacks ecological validity - Overlooks biological factors e.g nature vs nurture |
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Evaluate SLT |
Strengths: -recognises role of mediational processes and so explainsbehaviour in further detail than conditioning -explains cultural difference in behaviour and how surroundings effectbehaviour -less determinist than behaviourist response as we are influenced by how we choose to act on what is around us and we have free will Weaknesses: -over reliance on lab experiments eg Bandura’s doll had demand characteristics -underestimates biological influence e.g. Bandura’s dolls results that boys weremore a ggressive than girls could be because of hormones |
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What are the main assumptions of the cognitive approach? |
-THINKING causes behaviour and NOT LEARNING - Between the stimulus and response you think about what to do - Internal mental processes should be studied scientifically |
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What is a schema? |
A schema is a package of beliefs and expectations on a topic that comes from past experiences |
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Why is a schema useful but sometimes faulty? |
- They help us to take shortcuts in thinking BUT - We are born with basic schemas that develop from our experience but can lead to faulty conclusions and unhelpful behaviour |
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What are the 2 models that help us understand mental processes? |
1) Theoretical - helps us explain human behaviour BOTH 2) Computer- helps us make inferences about mental processes |
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What is an inference? |
- A process of drawing a conclusion about the way mental processes operate |
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Whats the information processing model? |
INPUT------> PROCESS---------> OUTPUT
- info is taken in from environment e.g senses - Info is the encoded and processed e.g using schema - observable behaviour e.g. 1) Dog barks when he sees fireworks 2) You remember seeing the dog bark at fireworks 3) Take the dog inside
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Whats the main assumptions of the theoretical and computer model? |
Theoretical: - Info processing model -explains mental processes -your brain processes info Computer: -assumesbrain like computer -central processing unit (brain) -coding, turns info into usable format -stores chunks of information |
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Evaluate the Cognitive Approach |
Strengths: -applications (used totreat mental illness), making thinking machines -lab experiments meaning high control andtherefore high internal validity -soft determinist, recognises we are able to think before responding to astimulus Weaknesses: - machine reductionist- Brain vs computer - brain can feel emotions, can create new concepts vs computer- memory isn't fallible, never distracted -experiments often carried out with artificial stimuli so lack externalvalidity and may not represent everyday memory functions real life |
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What are the main assumptions of the biological approach? |
-the biological approach refersto the influence of genes, biologicalstructures, and neurochemistry on our behaviour -it suggests that everything psychological is atfirst biological and we must look at body processes and the nervoussystem to understand it |
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Explain the genetic basis of behaviour ? |
- Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain characteristics have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates between pairs of twins to see which pair shared the same characteristics - It was found that MZ(identical) twins have higher concordance rates the DZ (non-identical) showing that Mz twins have 100% share the same genes and behave more similar |
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Whats the difference between a genotype and a phenotype ? |
- Genotype is the particular set of genes somebody has - Phenotype is the characteristics of someone determined by the genes and the environment |
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What is evolution? |
The changes ininherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations |
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What is a theory of evolution? |
-Darwin’s theory ofevolution is supported by the idea of ‘natural selection’, the idea that behaviourthat enhances an individual’s survival will continue in further generations.The process occurs naturally and if the processor survives they will pass onthese traits. |
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Evaluate the biological approach |
Strengths: -the biological approach makes use of scientific methods eg MRI scans, twin studies, drugtrials, we can measure biological processes meaning the approach is based on RELIABLE DATA -development of psychoactivedrugs that treat mental illness – the approach can be used for REAL LIFE APPLICATION Weaknesses: -The approach is a DETERMINIST as it sees human behaviour to begoverned by causes which we have no control of -nofree will -we cannot separate NATURE & NURTURE, can beinterpreted as both- huge confounding variables we don't know which one determines it |
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What is the nervous system and what is it divided into? |
Nervous system- consists of the CNS and PNS 1) The CNS- central nervous system 2) The PNS- peripheral nervous system |
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What is the CNS? |
The CNS: -made up of brain andspinal cord -brain is centre of all conscious awareness -the outside layer, cerebral cortex is what distinguishes us from animals andgives us higher mental functions -spinal cord is extension of brain and is responsible for reflex actions |
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What is the PNS? |
The PNS: -transmitsmessages through neurons to and from the CNS -it’s made up of two sections: 1) Autonomic nervous system- ANS (governs vital bodily processes such as breathing) 2) Somatic nervous system- SNS (controls muscle movement and receives info from sensory receptors) |
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What is the endocrine system? |
Major info system and instructs glands when to release hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones are carried towards main organs in the body |
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What is a gland? |
An organ in the body that synthesises substances such as hormones |
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What is a hormone? |
Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target hormones |
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What are the main endocrine glands in the body? |
GLAND: Pituitary Thyroid Adrenals Pancreas Ovaries Testes |
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What hormones do the glands release |
Testes- testosterone used for sperm production Ovaries- produceoestrogen used for development Pituitary- releases cortisol which is the stress hormone and controls most releases Thyroid - Thyroxine It plays vital roles in digestion, heart and muscle function, brain development and maintenance of bones. Adrenals- Adrenaline- immediate stress response it also helps stimulate heart rate etc Pancreas- Insulin regulates how the body uses and stores glucose and fat. |
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What is a flight or fight response? |
The way an animal responds when stressed. The body can either become in a parasympathetic (resting) state or a sympathetic (aroused) state |
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What's the differences on the body if your are in a parasympathetic (resting) state or a sympathetic (aroused) state? |
SYMPATHETIC: Increase in heart rate Increase breathing rate Dilates pupils Inhibits digestion Inhibits saliva production Contracts rectum PARASYMPATHETIC: Decrease in heart rate Decrease breathing rate Constricts pupils Stimulates digestion Stimulates saliva production Relaxes rectum |
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How is the flight or fight response triggered? |
-During a stressful event first thing that happens- hypothalamus triggers sympathetic branch in ANS -Endocrine system and ANS work together and the ANS changes from its parasympathetic state (resting) to sympathetic(aroused). -The stress hormone adrenaline- is released from the adrenal medulla into the bloodstream causing physiological changes. - Adrenaline causes these changes and creates physiological arousal thus ready for fight or flight It is an acute response and happens immediately |
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What are the 3 different types of neurons and what are there functions? |
1) Sensory neuron- carries messages from PNS to CNS- long dendrites and short axons 2) Relay neuron- connects the sensory neurone to the motor neuron- short dendrites and short axons 3) Motor neuron- connect the CNS to the effects e.g muscles- short dendrites and long axons |
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What's the difference between axons and dendrites? |
Axons= carry impulseAWAY from cell body down neuron Dendrites= carry impulse from other neurons TOWARDS cell body |
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What is a myelin sheath? |
A fatty layer aroundaxon to speed up transmission of impulse and protect it |
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What are the Nodes of Ranvier and the Terminal buttons? |
Nodes of Ranvier =speed up transmission by forcing impulse to jump across gaps along the axon Terminal butons- end of the axon and are things that communicate with the next neuron in the chain- the synapse |
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What is a synapse? |
Tiny gaps between each neuron |
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What is synaptic transmission? |
-each neuron is separated from another by a synapse - called synaptic cleft -signals within a neuron are transmitted electrically however across a synapse they’re transmitted chemically -the electrical impulse reaches the end of the neuron (presynaptic terminal) and triggers release of a neurotransmitter from synaptic vesicles -neurotransmitters are chemicals which diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron -once it crosses the gap it’s taken in by the postsynaptic receptor site of the next neuron and the impulse is converted back to electrical |
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What's the difference between inhibition and excitation ? |
Excitation- when a neurotransmitter increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic (receptor site) neuron. It increases the likelihood that the neuron will pass on the impulse e.g noradrenaline Inhibition- when a neurotransmitter increases the negative charge of post synaptic neuron. This decreases the chance that the neuron will pass on the impulse e.g GABA |
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What is the psychodynamic approach? |
A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience |
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Explain the role of the unconscious |
The part of the mind that we are unaware of that directs behaviour. Under the surface of this is the preconscious which includes thoughts and ideas which we may become aware of through dreams or through 'slip of the tongue'. An example is calling miss 'mum' |
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Describe the structure of the personality |
Freud described personality as 'tripartite' 1) ID- entirely unconscious, the id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification- present in babies 2) Ego- the 'reality check' balances conflict between ID and Superego. Ego develops around 2 years and manages to balance the 2 personalities due to defence mechanism 3) Superego- it is our internalised state of right or wrong and represents moral standards. Formed in end of phallic stage at around 5 |
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What are the three defence mechanisms and what are they ? |
Defence mechanism- Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflicts of the id and superego. Repression- forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind Denial- Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality Displacement- transferring feeling from one true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target |
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What are the psychosexual stages ? |
Each psychosexual stage is associated with a conflict that must be resolved before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage. if not carried out they can become fixated in that stage and carry bad traits when older |
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Evaluate the psychodynamic approach? |
STRENGTHS Practical Application - Freud has helped a new therapy called psychoanalysis, employing a range of techniques to access the unconscious mind Explanatory power -the approach has remained the dominant force in psychology for the first half of 20th century and helped explain a wide range of phenomena e.g abnormal behaviour WEAKNESSES Case study method - critics suggest its not possible to make such universal claims about human nature based on such a small number of humans who were psychologically abnormal - methods and findings very subjective Untestable concepts -approach does not make the scientific criterion of falsification, in the sense its not open to empirical testing |
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What is the humanistic approach? |
approach that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self-determination |
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What is free will ? |
Free Will- Behaviour of human beings expresses choice and is not determined by biological or external forces. |
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What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs ? |
A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs (e.g. hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (e.g. self-esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved. 1)psychological needs 2)safety 3)love 4)esteem 5)self-actualisation Self-actualisation- Top level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs: to realise one's true and full potential |
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How are the self and congruence linked ? |
For Personal growth to happen an individuals concept of self but have congruence with their ideal self if the gap is too big between the 2 sleeves he will not be able to achieve self -actualisation due to negative feelings about self and incongruence |
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How can the gap between self and ideal self be reduced? |
Rodgers developed 'client-centered therapy' to help people cope with everyday life. Rodgers found that low self esteem is linked with our childhood by a lack of unconditional positive regard. |
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What are the conditions of worth ? |
Placing limits or boundaries on parents' love of their children; e.g. 'I will only love you if…'- causes incongruence |
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Evaluate the humanistic approach |
STRENGTHs Not reductionist - holistic approach as the approach looks at the whole individual instead of braking up behaviour into small components Positive approach - it offers an optimistic alternative where it sees all people as being good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives WEAKNESSEs Cultural bias - many of the ideas central to humanistic psychology such as individual freedom , autonomy and personal growth would be readily associated with individualistic cultures in the west e,g USA Limited App - lacks real-world app on the discipline for psychology as a whole |
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Define psychology |
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context. |
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Define introspection |
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations. |
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Wundts lab and Wundts introspection |
First lab dedicated to psychology, Germany (1879). Set out to describe the nature of human consciousness. Known as introspection, recorded their own conscious thought, in aim to break down their constituent parts. Isolating the structure of consciousness is called structuralism. |
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Controlled Methods |
-Strength of Wundt's introspection (controlled)- all introspections were recorded under strictly controlled conditions using the same stimulus every time. The same standardised instructions were issues to all participants, this allowed procedures to be replicated. -Wundt's work was significant in that it marked the separation of modern scientific psychology from its philosophical roots. Weakness- Subjective data, difficult to establish general principals, phenomena couldn't be observed or measured. |
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Explain the emergence of psychology as a science |
17th-19th century-Best described as experimental psychology. Includes Descartes, John LockeNOT SCIENTIFIC- more philosophical. 1879-Wilhelm Wundt- 1st experimental lab in Germany. 'Introspection'Psychology became a discipline in its own right. 1900-Freud developed the psychodynamic approach. He did psycho analysis which was a person centred theory. 1910-Watson and skinner develop behaviourist approach which took a scientific process through the use of lab experiments. 1950-Maslow and Rogers developed humanistic approach which emphasised the importance of free will. It rejects behaviourism and psychodynamic approach. 1960-The cognitive approach was developed which focused on the study of mental processes (very scientific)Then Bandura developed SLT 1980+-The biological approach became the dominant scientific perspective in psychology. Advances in technology led to a greater understanding. |
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Explain the role of adrenaline in flight or fight response |
- adrenaline - hormone produced by adrenal glands which is part of the body's immediate stress response system, it has a strong effect on the cells of cardiovascular system stimulating the heart rate etc Adrenal gland split into two: - Adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline- keyrole in F or F response - Adrenal cortex releases cortex- stimulates release of glucose and supresses immune system |
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Evaluate the Flight or fight response? |
Weaknesses Doesn't explain why we freeze - freezing allows for a 'stop, look and listen' alert but F or F doesn't account for this - adrenaline promotes this behaviour Gender differences - women tend to tend and befriend and form alliances- this is shown through evolution where women cant act violent as it puts their child at risk - tend and befriend allows for protection of their child Outdated - We don't hunt anymore therefore it isn't needed for adaptive behaviors and can lead to health risks Doesn't explain positives - events such as 9/11 lead to pro-social behaviour and helping each other out in a fight response- F or F doesn't account for this |
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What is electrical transmission- firing of neuron ? |
1) Dendrites pick up signals from other neurons called neurotransmitters 2)Those signals picked up cause electrical changes to the neuron 3) If signal strong enough sent to axon 4) At this point signal called Action Potential 5) Action potential travels down axon to the buttons and releases the neurotransmitter |
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Describe how a neuron gains action potential |
- At resting state neuron is negatively charged but when neuron is activated the inside of the cell gains charge causing an action potential - This causes an electrical impulse that travels down axon to end of it |
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How is the endocrine system regulated by feedback> |
- ES is regulated by feedback so that there are stable concentrations of hormones circulating the bloodstream - if too much = dysfunction |
