Applied Climatology Final

Front 1

Ice sheets and glaciers spatial distribution?

Back 1

11% of land cover.

Front 2

Sea ice spatial distribution?

Back 2

7% of oceans.

Front 3

Snow spatial distribution?

Back 3

50% of Northern hemisphere in the winter and 10% of oceans on sea ice

Front 4

Permafrost spatial distribution?

Back 4

15-20% of land surface.

Front 5

Sea ice and glacier residence time?

Back 5

100,000s to million years.

Front 6

Sea ice residence time?

Back 6

months to years.

Front 7

Snow residence time?

Back 7

days to months.

Front 8

Sea ice seasonal variation?

Back 8

Accumulates during the winter, melts during the summer.
SH: accumulates slow, decays fast during since the warm ocean currents has a greater influence on decay.
NH: accumulates fast and decays slow since there is more land and the ocean has less influence on decay.

Front 9

Permafrost seasonal variation?

Back 9

Regions of thin and discontinuous (not permanent) permafrost, relative rapid change occurs.

Front 10

Difference between Arctic and Antarctic regions?

Back 10

Ocean cover: North polar cap is 22% ocean cover
South polar cap is 72% ocean cover

Topography: Antartica has high topography (3-4km)
Arctic region has low topography (except Greenland)

The Antarctic Shelf

Front 11

What are the three type of glaciers that make up the classification of glaciers according to their physical characteristics?

Back 11

1) Ice sheets
2) Mountain glaciers
3) Piedmont

Front 12

Classification of glaciers according to their physical characteristics: Ice Sheets physical characteristics?

Back 12

Ice sheets: are continuous ice masses moving radially in all directions over vast plateaus (unconfined).
-smaller ice cap occupying central parts of a mountain range.
-on coast margins, ice sheets can extend over adjacent sea as ice shelf.

Front 13

Classification of glaciers according to their physical characteristics: Mountain glaciers physical characteristics?

Back 13

Confined to topographic weaknesses, which directs their development and main movement.
Consists of:
Valley glaciers: glacier flowing down preexisting river valleys.
Cirques/corries: small and only in valley head.
Outlet glacier: ice spills over from ice sheets/ice caps through a col or saddle

Front 14

Classification of glaciers according to their physical characteristics: Piedmont Glaciers physical characteristics?

Back 14

occupy broad lowlands and coastal plains at the base of a mountain.

Front 15

What are the thermal characteristics of a glacier?

Back 15

derived from 3 heat sources:
1) Surface (warm air, latent heat release)
2) The base (geothermal heat flows into the base)
3) Internal friction heat

Front 16

What are the 2 classifications of glaciers according to their thermal characteristics?

Back 16

1) Warm Glaciers (temperate)
2) Cold Glaciers (polar)

Front 17

What are the thermal characteristics of a temperate (warm) glacier?

Back 17

Temperature close to pressure melting point throughout the glaciers due to surface heating. The base layers on an annual basis are cooler than the surface zone.

Front 18

What are the thermal characteristics of a polar (cold) glacier?

Back 18

Develop when surface melting in summer is negligible or absent. Temperature is well below the melting point from the surface to bottom. Temperature increases with depth towards the source of geothermal heat.

Actual rate of temperature increase in cold ice with depth is strongly influenced by the accumulation rate of snow and firn.

Front 19

Constituent zones in a typical glacier?

Back 19

accumulation zone ( area of net accumulation) and ablation zone (area of net ablation)
with the boundary between the zones called the equilibrium line.

Front 20

What are the energy components and factors that control glacier’s ablation?

Back 20

net radiation (Rn) - controlled by albedo, cloudiness, and is important in high elevations and in areas remote from the sea.
Sensible heat (H) - produces rates of ablation due to the conductive exchange between glacier surface and warm air.
Latent heat (LH) - is from condensation.

Front 21

Glaciers ablation rates depending on location

Back 21

Ablation rates of glaciers that are near the ocean and at low elevation will be higher due to sensible and latent heat fluxes.
Ablation from solar radiation is the greatest, while latent and sensible heat fluxes are more important July to late August.

Front 22

Snow cover change during last century?

Back 22

Northern Hemisphere annual snow-cover extent decreased by 11% since 1966, mainly due to temperature change.

Front 23

Sea-ice extent & thickness change during the last century?

Back 23

over NH decreased 2.8 ± 0.3% per decade.
(Antarctica sea ice increased)
Significant decline in mean ice thickness in all observed regions.

Front 24

Permafrost change during the last century?

Back 24

warming of permafrost in Alaska Arctic of 2-4°C

Front 25

Antarctic Peninsula ice shelves change during last century?

Back 25

Antarctic peninsula temperature increased more than 2°C since 1940s.

Front 26

What are the changes in mountain glaciers in the past century?

Back 26

Glacier retreat is a worldwide phenomenon.
recessions of mountain glaciers provides qualitative support to the rise in global temperature since the late 19th century.

Front 27

What is the Gaia hypothesis?

Back 27

Life not only has a great influence on the evolution of the Earth, but also serves as an active control system. Life on Earth provides a homeostatic feedback system, leading to stabilization of global temperature, chemical composition and so on.

Front 28

What are the four major mechanisms/factors that may control the carbon and atmospheric temperature in the geological past?

Back 28

1) Silicate-carbonate buffering system (weathering system)
2) Photosynthesis processes
3) Plate tectonic effect (mountain building) continental emergence and submergence
4) Milankovitch's Cycles

Front 29

Silicate-carbonate buffering system (chemical weathering) process

Back 29

separates the carbon and oxygen in sediment materials.
CO2 is dissolved in water (precipitation) to carbonic acid through chemical weathering, which produce limestone and quartz where the carbon is buried.
This process is increased when sea level is low and more continent.
Buried 80% of world's CO2 produced by early volcanic activity

Front 30

Plate tectonics effect

Back 30

continental emerging and submerging influences the climate because with more land mass and seal level low, the weathering process and burying CO2 is greater.
-This is why cool periods occur when sea level is low/associated with more land.

Front 31

Milankovitch's Cycles (earth sun relationship):
Orbital eccentricity

Back 31

occurs every 96,000 years and affects the distance between the earth and sun.
He believes that the climate corresponds with the earth's eccentricity. such as when the earth is furthest away from the sun it will be cooler.

Front 32

Mil
ankovitch's Cycles (earth sun relationship):
Axial tilt (Orbital tilt)

Back 32

occurs every 42,000 years
tilt max: 24.5° | tilt min: 22.1°
affects seasonal variation.
big tilt = sever seasonal change
small tile = little season change

Front 33

Milankovitch's Cycles (earth sun relationship):
Procession of Equinoxes/pole wandering

Back 33

occurs every 21,000, years
the North Pole varies in the direction in points to.

Front 34

Milankovitch's theory believes:

Back 34

1) 2.47-0.734 million years BP, periodic climate change developed and was controlled by 41,000 year cycle of orbital obliquity
2) 0.734-present, 100,000 year orbital eccentricity factor is dominate and caused the onset of intensified glaciation.

Front 35

Why some people suspect Milankovitch's hypothesis?

Back 35

1. The computed astronomical dates for ice ages do not correspond closely to the actual date.
2. Cannot explain the cycle less than 21,000 yrs. Some other factors
3. The 100,000 year cycle has the smallest effect on radiation reaching the planet but emerges as the strongest in the climate records.
4. Variations in the earth’s orbit should give rise to glacial periods in just one hemisphere. In reality, glaciation is a global phenomenon.
5. Why would eccentricity cycles suddenly become important about 800,000 yrs ago?

Front 36

The major factors/processes that influence the current distribution and composition of vegetation.

Back 36

1. Precipitation and temperature determine the range of plant species, which can grow and persist in given climate zone (plant diversity, plan physiology, photosynthesis processes, biogeochemical cycle, and rate of weathering)
• 2. The mean winter position of the jet stream (boundary of polar and temperate air mass) affects the movement of low latitudinal tree lines
• 3. Biogeographic barriers: Mountain barrier and sea barriers
• 4. Competition between species
• 5. Herbivory

Front 37

Holdridge classification (only the figure “Generalized Life Zone” in the handout is required).

Back 37

http://goo.gl/IPTLOV

Front 38

Carbon budget from figure in handout 6.2

Back 38

From 1980-89, CO2 from fossil fuel release was 5.5 Gt/yr, but overall CO2 increased only 3.3 Gt/yr. This is because the Ocean uptake was 2.0 Gt/yr through turbulence and release of CO2 into the deep ocean and land uptake through photosynthesis process was 0.2 Gt/yr. 5.5 Gt/yr from fossil fuel release subtract the combined ocean and land carbon uptake (2.2) comes out to 3.3 Gt/yr carbon increase.
Land uptake is 0.2 Gt/yr because the land sink uptakes 1.9 Gt/yr and the land use change releases 1.7 Gt/yr, which balances out to an uptake of 0.2 Gt/yr.

Front 39

What is the relationships between GPP and NPP, and how are they involved in CO2 release?
IMPORTANT

Back 39

Gross primary production (GPP) is the carbon that is "fixed" from the atmosphere (i.e., converted from CO2 to carbohydrate during photosynthesis.
Net Primary productivity (NPP) is a measure of the rate at which solar energy is converted to plant tissue (i.e., the GPP less autotrophic respiration (metabolism)). NPP represent the energy available to maintain biomass and diversity of almost all forms of life. Allocation of NPP to roots, leaves, and wood determines how long the carbon can remain in the ecosystem.
From long run, all of CO2 fixed in NPP is returned to atmosphere through heterotrophic respiration (RH) by decomposes and herbivores; and combustion.
Net ecosystem exchange: NEE = NPP􏰁RH.
Net biome productivity: NBP =NPP􏰁RH􏰁combustion.

Front 40

How doubling CO2 and global warming scenarios may affect the carbon budget and vegetation distribution
IMPORTANT

Back 40

CO2 fertilization: It is the effect of increased plant growth under elevated CO2 condition. Increase of CO2 generally enhances photosynthesis processes, and produces an increasing ratio of carbon gain and water loss (WUE).
C3 (all trees, all plants of cold climates, most crops, e.g., wheat, rice) increases NPP when CO2 increase.
C4 (tropical grasses, some shrubs, and some crops, i.e., maize and sugar cane) already has mechanisms to concentrate CO2.

Front 41

What are the Five major factors that influence the soil formation?

Back 41

1. Parent materials
2. Climate
3. Relief
4. Plant & animal organizations
5. Time available for soil development

Front 42

How climate influences the soil environment?

Back 42

--Atmospheric Temperature determines the speed of chemical reactions, biochemical processes, and, to a certain extent, the amount of biological activity in soil.
-- The balance of rainfall and evapotranspiration determines how much water percolates through the soil either to remove or redistribute chemical products. Soil moisture influences chemical process and biochemical process
--The climate determines the natural vegetation and crops, which influence the water distribution in the soil and the nature of organic component of the soil.
--he climate influences soil physical weathering.
⁃ weather can damage the soil by wind and etc

Front 43

Definition of the soil horizon

Back 43

A soil horizon is a layer of soil, possessing pedological characteristics. Each horizon can be identified by its morphology, physical characteristics, chemical composition and presence of biological activity.

OHAE makeup top soil.
O horizon: An organic horizon at the soil surface, normally not saturated with water
H horizon: An organic horizon at the soil surface normally saturated with water, characteristic of peaty deposits.
A horizon: A mineral horizon formed at or near the surface, characterized by the incorporation of humified organic matter intimately associated with mineral materials.
E horizon: A mineral horizon, just below the soil surface, which has lost clay and organic matter of iron by downward movement.

B: A subsurface mineral horizon resulting from the change in situ of soil material or the washing in of material from overlying horizons.
C: An unconsolidated or weakly consolidated mineral horizon which retains evidence of rock structure and lack the properties diagnostic of the overlying A, E, or B horizons.
R: Continuous hard or very hard bedrock.

Front 44

Composition of soil?

Back 44

mineral matter
organic matter
air
water

Front 45

Texture in mineral matter?

Back 45

The mineral part of soil consists of particles with a range of sizes from very small clay particles up to sand‐size particles.

Front 46

Four types of organic matter?

Back 46

1) Peat: (SATURATED) organic accumulation composed of fibrous, semi-fibrous, or amorphous materials.

2) Mor: Beneath a health or coniferous forest plant community (associated with strong acid soils)
⁃ Litter: fallen leaves not decomposed so it has low nutritive value and strong acidity
⁃ Fermentation: anaerobic (no oxygen) breakdown of organic
⁃ Humus: a brown or black material from partial decomposition of plant animal.

3)Moder: under woodland conditions
4) Mull: forms freely drained, base-rich soil with good aeration. Plenty of litter.

Front 47

Concepts of soil water (3 of them)

Back 47

Soil is hold by adhesive forces between organic and inorganic particle and water molecules.
**Saturation: water fills the voids and drives the air out.
**Field capacity: in a free drained soil, it is the moisture content between between 24 to 48 hours after substantial rainfall (depends on the texture)
**Wilting point: a moisture content which is insufficient to maintain the normal state of tension in plants. If moisture is below wilting point, plant wilts.

Front 48

average soil air composition and the reason why it differs from the atmospheric air.

Back 48

Soil air: 20.65% oxygen, 79.20% nitrogen, and 0.25% CO2.
differs from atmospheric air by the amount of CO2 it contains. Has higher concentration due to:
⁃leaf litter, and organic manure
⁃water
⁃pores and fissures- small pores make air exchange more difficult.
⁃the gradient of gas concentration, wind, pressure due to diffusion.

Front 49

Soil ecological zone: Criteria for each zone, general distribution

Back 49

Based on the length of growing period (LPG)
• Arid soil: < 75 days
• Seasonally dry: 75 - 270 days
• Humid climate: > 270 days
Length of frost free period (FFP)
• Boreal and polar zones: < 75 days
• Cold: 75 - 135 days
• Temperate climate: > 135 days
Within the tropical regions, soil ecological zone is based on length of dry season
• Seasonally dry subtropics: 90 - 285 days
• Humid tropics: have favorable growing season year round.

Front 50

Soil and greenhouse gases: CO2 carbon

(know the relationships between the soil and the gases, when they will be released, what processes generate those gases)

Back 50

Cultivation causes the aeration and stimulates the activity of aerobic bacteria, which lead to a decline in the amount of organic carbon in the soil.

Biomass burning, tropical forest deforestation and cropping are responsible for reductions in soil organic carbon content (CO2), most of which is released in gaseous form.

Front 51

Soil and greenhouse gases: CH4 Methane

(know the relationships between the soil and the gases, when they will be released, what processes generate those gases)

Back 51

The methane source in soil is from organic decomposition deep in the soil at restricted anaerobic sites. The activity of methanogenic bacteria increases in response to anaerobic conditions when the fields are flooded.

Major natural source: wetlands.
Anthropogenic sources: Rice agriculture, ruminants, energy, land fills, biomass burning, waste treatment.

Front 52

Soil and greenhouse gases: N2O Nitrous Oxide

(know the relationships between the soil and the gases, when they will be released, what processes generate those gases)

Back 52

Anaerobic soil conditions encourages denitrifying bacteria.
Sources: Natural terrestrial ecosystem
Anthropogenic:
Nitrogenous fertilizers in soils; Biomass burning; Industrial sources; Cattle and feedlots

Front 53

External and internal forcings.

Back 53

Climate is modulated by both external and internal forcings.
External forcings:
a) General forcings: such as the *astronomical* factors: intensity of solar irradiance, the orbital parameters (eccentricity of the orbit, axial tilt, procession of the equinoxes); the action of gravity, the earth's motion around sun and its rotation.
b) The terrestrial forcings: variations of *atmospheric composition*, variation of the land surface, *topography*, long term changes of tectonic factors (*continental drift*).
Internal factors: positive and negative feedbacks and other strong interactions between atmosphere, ocean, land, which lead to instability and oscillations.

Front 54

Classification of thermodynamic systems:

Back 54

• Isolated system: the boundary of a system is restrictive for all variables.
• Closed system: the boundary of a system is restricted only for matter.
• Open system: the transfers of energy and matter are allowed, such as atmosphere, ocean, and biosphere. It can be classified into three main categories: decaying, cyclic, randomly fluctuating system.

Front 55

Components in the climate system.

Back 55

components of Climate system are Characterized by their chemical composition, their thermodynamic states, and mechanical states.
Climate system is a close system but all subsystems are open systems.

Front 56

The time (or temporal) scales
IMPORTANT

Back 56

• Free atmosphere: hour to months;
• upper ocean mixed layer: weeks to years;
• deep ocean water: decades to millennia;
• snow: days to month;
• sea ice: weeks to decades;
• glaciers: centuries;
• ice sheets: millennia and beyond;
• tectonic phenomena: tens of M of years.
• Atmospheric boundary layer and photosynthesis: minutes to hours;
• vegetation and inland water: months to centuries.

Front 57

internal and external systems

Back 57

Internal system: a subsystem or a combination of subsystem (e.g., oceans and atmosphere). In general, time scale characterizing behavior of the internal system is much shorter than that of external system (so external system can be considered in a steady status).
Steady state/External system: properties are invariant when averaged over a given time interval
Through the boundary conditions, the external system may influence the internal system and force an adjustment.

Front 58

Three different behaviors of climate systems:

Back 58

(a) Transitive
(b) Intransitive
(c) Almost intransitive

Front 59

20) Feedback concept, i.e., positive and negative feedback.
(e might give out some scenarios and ask us to choose from positive or negative. Or he might ask us to make up some scenarios according to his requirement.)

Back 59

The components of the climatic system interact each other. Part of the output returns to serve as an input again. The net response of the system is altered. The feedback mechanism may act either to amplify the final output (positive feedback) or to dampen it (negative feedback).
Positive feedbacks always exaggerate the initial change, whatever the direction; negative feedbacks can, at most, return the initial change to zero; they cannot reverse its direction.

Examples
(1).CO2 and temperature relation.
(2). Albedo and snow temperature relation:
• If something acts to decrease the global surface temperature, then the formation of additional areas of snow and ice is likely. These cryospheric elements are bright and white, reflecting almost all the solar radiation incident upon them. Their albedo (ratio of reflected to incident radiation) is high and, therefore, the surface albedo, and probably the planetary albedo (the reflectivity of the whole atmosphere plus surface system as seen from 'outside' the planet), increases. Thus a greater amount of solar radiation is reflected away from the planet and temperatures decrease further. A further increase in snow and ice results from this decreased temperature and the process continues. This (positive) ice-albedo feedback mechanism is, of course, also positive if the initial perturbation causes an increase in global surface temperatures. With higher temperatures, the areas of snow and ice are likely to be reduced, so reducing the albedo and leading to further enhancement of temperatures.

(3). Water vapor, cloud, and T relation.

Front 60

Look at question 21.

Back 60

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